Keywords

Tracing its origins back to the Eastern Han Dynasty, the tradition of translating Buddhist texts into Chinese underwent significant development over several centuries. By the time of the Sui Dynasty, two main collaborative models had emerged: small-scale translation teams and large-scale translation teams. After the fall of the Sui Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty came to power. During Emperor Gaozu’s reign (566–635, reigned 618–626), although China experienced relative peace, translation activities were yet to fully flourish. It was during the early years of the Zhenguan 貞觀 era, under Emperor Taizong (598–649, reigned 626–649), that he ordered support for the Indian Buddhist monk Prabhākaramitra (565–633) in organizing a translation team. This initiative revitalized the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and gave rise to a new collaborative translation model, which is called the “elite translation team” in this monograph.

The “elite translation team” concept encompasses: (1) a foundation rooted in the small group translation structure of the Sui Dynasty, which thoroughly integrates translation steps from small-scale translation teams that emerged during the Eastern Han, the Three Kingdoms, and the Southern and Northern Dynasties; (2) a fusion of the emphasis on idea-sharing and collective deliberation present in previous large-scale translation teams, resulting in a more comprehensive process of proofreading and editing translated texts; and (3) a constraint on the number of translators, limited to between ten and several dozen individuals, who are carefully selected by the imperial court from the most distinguished Buddhist scholars. This approach ultimately leads to a new collaborative model characterized by a clear division of labor and refinement, composed of translation elites. Spearheaded and promoted by Prabhākaramitra in Chang’an, this marked the beginning of the elite translation team model. In time, it was adopted by Xuanzang and subsequent generations of translators who continued to promote, adjust, and refine the model. This model eventually became the primary translation organization of the Tang Dynasty, a subject that will be examined in detail in the subsequent sections.

This chapter focuses on the establishment of the translation team led by Prabhākaramitra during the early Tang period, followed by an analysis of how Xuanzang’s elite translation team inherited and developed this legacy. It reveals how the two generations of Buddhist masters laid the foundation for the earliest official translation system in the Tang Dynasty.

3.1 Prabhākaramitra’s Elite Translation Team

3.1.1 Founding the Premier Elite Translation Team in the Early Tang Dynasty

During the initial years of Emperor Taizong’s reign, Prabhākaramitra, with the backing of the imperial court, directed the first team-based Buddhist scripture translation project in Chang’an after the founding of the Tang Dynasty in 618. This elite translation team was established before the acclaimed translation team led by Xuanzang, and it significantly impacted the collaborative translation efforts in subsequent generations.

Prabhākaramitra, the chief translator, hailed from Central India and belonged to the Brahmin caste. At the age of ten, he became a monk and followed his master’s guidance. Through tireless recitation of scriptures, strict adherence to precepts, and seeking knowledge from renowned teachers across the Western Regions, he eventually mastered both Mahāyāna and Theravāda Buddhism.

Prabhākaramitra, along with his disciples, propagated Buddhist teachings extensively, guiding border tribes yet to embrace Buddhism. His reputation reached its peak when he arrived in the territory of Yehu Khan葉護可汗. In 626, during the ninth year of Wude武德, the King of Gaoping高平王 requested Prabhākaramitra to enter the Tang Dynasty and promote Buddhism. The imperial court granted approval, and Prabhākaramitra accompanied the king to the capital. By 627, Prabhākaramitra reached Guanzhong, settled in Chang’an, and enjoyed the support of the imperial court.

Emperor Taizong, who believed that “everything is void, and no discourse is more essential than the Buddhist canon” (諸有非樂，物我皆空，眷言真要，無過釋典) (T50, no. 2060, vol. 3, 439–440), endorsed Prabhākaramitra’s translation project at the Daxingshan Monastery. This significant event took place in 629, during the third year of Zhenguan, marking the inception of the premier elite translation team in the Tang Dynasty.

3.1.2 Assembling the Team for Prabhākaramitra’s Translation Center

Prior to initiating the translation process in Prabhākaramitra’s translation team, the primary focus was on selecting highly skilled translators and assembling a capable translation team. In early medieval China, there were no stringent requirements for participants in collaborative scripture translation projects. However, as standards gradually emerged during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Yancong of the Sui Dynasty introduced the “Eight Preconditions” (babei八備), outlining essential qualifications for Buddhist translators (T54, no. 2131, vol. 1, 1067).

By the time of the Tang Dynasty, greater emphasis was placed on the moral character and talents of translators. Those who entered the court for translation work were expected to possess specific abilities that distinguished them from large-scale translation teams, where both monastic and laypeople could assist in translation tasks. Consequently, when forming Prabhākaramitra’s team, the imperial court dispatched officials to recruit translators who embodied both virtue and learning, as historical records state: “by imperial decree, seek those with great virtue” (下詔所司，搜揚碩德) (T13, no. 402, vol. 1, 536). Translators were expected to “be well-versed in the three teachings and proficient in the ten branches” (兼閑三教，備舉十科), which implied they should have extensive knowledge in both Buddhism and secular subjects (T13, no. 402, vol. 1, 536). The “Ten Branches” (Shike十科), akin to the “Ten Rules” mentioned by Yancong in the Sui Dynasty, dictated that translators should be familiar with syntax, dialogue, terminology, scriptures, hymns, mantra, chapter titles, specialization, character components, and pronunciation (T54, no. 2131, vol. 1, 1067). The translation team was limited to nineteen members, and only those who successfully passed the selection process could join the esteemed translation team.

3.1.3 The First Project of Prabhākaramitra’s Translation Team

Once the translation team was assembled, Prabhākaramitra led the translation efforts in the capital, successfully completing three Buddhist texts: Ratnaketuparivarta 寶星陀羅尼經, Mūlamadhyamakakārikā 般若燈論釋, and Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra 大乘莊嚴經論. The prefaces of these translations offer in-depth insights into the translation process, shedding light on the inner workings of the earliest elite translation team. As detailed in the preface of the Ratnaketuparivarta authored by Falin法琳 (571–639):

Prabhākaramitra, a Tripiṭaka master from Central India, journeyed to the Tang Dynasty to propagate the Dharma, braving various dangers and difficulties to traverse the Pamir Mountains. During the first year of Zhenguan (627), he reached the capital and garnered imperial support. The imperial court assembled nineteen virtuous and knowledgeable translators proficient in the three teachings and ten branches. At Daxingshan Monastery, Prabhākaramitra and his team engaged in face-to-face translation. Śramaṇa Huicheng and others verified the meanings, Śramaṇa Xuanmo and others undertook the translation, while Śramaṇa Huiming, Falin, and others penned the manuscript. The team attentively reviewed and refined the text, confirming the meanings, and finalizing the translation. The work commenced in the third year of Zhenguan (629) and concluded in the fourth year of Zhenguan (630). The translation spans ten volumes and thirteen chapters, totaling 63,882 words. (T13, no. 402, vol. 1, 536)

The translation process unfolded at the Daxingshan Monastery, where Prabhākaramitra and his team carried out “face-to-face translation” (相對翻譯), announcing the original text as the initial step. Subsequently, Huicheng慧乘 and others verified the Sanskrit text, ensuring the content accurately reflected Prabhākaramitra’s description. The translation into Chinese, spearheaded by Xuanmo玄謨 and others, then commenced. Huiming慧明, Falin, and others were tasked with composing the manuscript, thoroughly reviewing, and revising the text, and confirming that the translation accurately conveyed the original text’s meanings. The finalized version was documented after multiple revisions, completed between the third and fourth years of Zhenguan (629–630). This demonstrates that the first elite translation project in the early Tang Dynasty refined and improved upon the previous collaborative translation model, reintroducing the verification step for the original text and providing more comprehensive and precise explanations of the writing and editing work.

3.1.4 The Second Project of Prabhākaramitra’s Translation Team

The second translation project undertaken by Prabhākaramitra and his team resulted in another version of Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā and an accompanying commentary that distinguishes the interpretation by Bodhisattva of Clear Discrimination and Discernment (Fenbieming Pusa 分別明菩薩). The preface of Prabhākaramitra’s translation of the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā provides a detailed account of the translation process:

In the fourth year of Zhenguan (630), after completing the translation of Ratnaketuparivarta, Prabhākaramitra moved to the Shengguang Monastery. Many learned Śramaṇas were selected to assist with the translation, including Huicheng (555-630), Huilang, Fachang (567-645), Tanzang (567-635), Zhishou (567-635), Huiming, Daoyue (568-636), Sengbian (568-642), Sengzhen, Zhijie, Wenshun, Falin (571-639), Lingjia, Huizi (580-636), and Huijing (578-?). Fifteen selected translators were in charge of translating the original text announced by the Tripiṭaka master into Chinese. Śramaṇa Xuanmo, Sengjia, and the Vinaya master Gupta, who is the Tripiṭaka master’s schoolmate, collaborated as proofreaders and examiners to review and ensure the accuracy of the translation. (T30, no. 1566, vol. 1, 51)

The team worked diligently, day and night, to thoroughly examine the subtle meanings of the text, remove the unnecessary parts, and preserve the essence of the original work. This became the core strategy for translation, emphasizing the importance of proofreading and editing the translated text, just as in the large-scale translation teams. However, the number of participants was significantly reduced, limited to translators appointed by the imperial court.

In addition to the monk translators, court officials Fang Xuanling房玄齡 (579–648), Du Zhenglun杜正倫, and Li Xiaogong李孝恭 (591–640) jointly oversaw the translation process, known as “supervising translation” (Jianyi監譯). The famous Buddhist official Xiao Jing蕭璟 also provided continuous support. This continued the translation supervision system that appeared during the Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Sui Dynasty. The final version of the text was completed in the sixth year of Zhenguan (632).

3.1.5 The Third Project of Prabhākaramitra’s Translation Team

In the fourth year of the Zhenguan, the translation team led by Prabhākaramitra not only worked on the translation of the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā but also focused on the Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra. The translation process was documented by Li Baiyao李百藥 (565–648) in the preface to the translated Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra:

In the fourth year of Zhenguan, following the imperial decree, Fang Xuanling, the Assistant Minister of the Left of the Department of State Affairs and Duke of Xingguo, and Du Zhenglun, a Gentleman of the Horse and acting Principal of the Crown Prince’s Eastern Palace, were appointed to oversee the translation. Buddhist masters Huicheng, Huilang, Fachang, Zhijie, Tanzang, Zhishou, Daoyue, Huiming, Sengbian, Sengzhen, Falin, Lingjia, Huizi, Huijing, Xuanmo, and Sengjia were gathered at the Shengguang Monastery to carry out the translation work. Furthermore, the imperial court appointed Xiao Jing, the Minister of the Imperial Treasury and Lord of Lanling, to supervise the editing and collation of the translated texts. Prabhākaramitra said, “In foreign countries, this work is regarded as the basis for both Mahāyāna and Theravāda studies. If one does not understand this work, they cannot propagate the Dharma.” Therefore, the team devoted themselves to the study and translation of the text. Among the translators, Huijing was especially skilled at collating the text, while Xuanmo was adept at understanding the regional dialect and interpreting the meaning of the text, ensuring accuracy in the translation. The work was finally completed in the seventh year of Zhenguan, consisting of thirteen volumes and twenty-four chapters. (T31, no. 1604, vol. 1, 590)

From the preface, we can see that in addition to Prabhākaramitra, the main translator, the translation team also included Huicheng慧乘, Huilang慧朗, Fachang法常, Zhijie智解, Tanzang曇藏, Zhishou智首, Daoyue道岳, Huiming惠明, Sengbian僧辯, Sengzhen僧珍, Falin法琳, Lingjia靈佳, Huizi慧賾, Huijing慧淨, Xuanmo玄謨, and Sengjia僧伽. These translators were similar to the team mentioned above, with Huijing being particularly skilled at collating the text and Xuanmo contributing greatly to the understanding and interpretation of the text. Several court officials also assisted in the revision of the translated scripture, with Fang Xuanling and Du Zhenglun responsible for overseeing the translation, and Xiao Jing supervising the editing and collation process.

From this information, we can see that the role of “collating the text” (Zhuiwen綴文) first appeared in the translation team led by Prabhākaramitra, and the task of refining the translated text was established as part of the translation process. This further systematized the collaborative workflow in the translation team. Li Baiyao’s account also shows that during the early Tang Dynasty, the supervisory role of court officials was no longer limited to coordinating administrative affairs and supplying offerings for the Buddhist translators. They also participated in the revision of the translated text alongside the Buddhist monks, reflecting a further evolution of the roles and responsibilities within the translation organization (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1 Overview of Prabhākaramitra’s translation projects in the early Tang Dynasty
Full size table

3.1.6 Exploring Additional Historical Sources for Prabhākaramitra’s Translation Process Beyond Prefaces

In addition to the above prefaces, the biography of Prabhākaramitra in the Xu Gaosengzhuan 續高僧傳 (The Continuation of Biographies of Eminent Monks) provides insight into the formation, size, and overall division of labor within the early translation teams. According to the biography, Huicheng and others were responsible for verifying the meaning, while Xuanmo and others focused on language translation. Huizi, Huijing, Huiming, and Falin contributed to composing the text, with Fang Xuanling and Du Zhenglun assisting in scrutinizing and finalizing the translation. Xiao Jing oversaw and safeguarded the process. Provisions for the translators were all provided by the imperial court. The biography’s content can be cross-referenced with historical materials in the prefaces, offering a complementary and illustrative account of the operations and responsibilities within the translation teams led by Prabhākaramitra. The original text is as follows:

(Prabhākaramitra and the nineteen translators) began the translation work at the Daxingshan Monastery. Monk Huicheng and others were responsible for verifying the meaning, Monk Xuanmo and others for translating the language, and Monk Huizi, Huijing, Huiming, and Falin for composing the text. In addition, the imperial decree appointed Fang Xuanling, the Assistant Minister of the Left of the Department of State Affairs and Duke of Xingguo, and Du Zhenglun, a Gentleman of the Horse and acting Principal of the Crown Prince’s Eastern Palace, to assist in the scrutiny and finalization of the translated text. Xiao Jing, the Minister of the Imperial Treasury and Lord of Lanling, supervised and monitored the process, with various government departments providing provisions and support for the translators’ needs. (T50, no. 2060, vol. 3, 440)

3.1.7 The Evolution of Translation Teams and the Legacy of Prabhākaramitra’s Elite Translation Approach

In summary, the rise of elite translation teams under Prabhākaramitra’s leadership marked a significant shift in collaborative translation during medieval China. These teams brought refinements in organization, procedures, and roles of translators, drawing on the strengths of both small-scale translation teams and large-scale translation teams from earlier times. This innovative approach aimed to enhance and advance translation processes.

Notably, after initiating the translation work, Prabhākaramitra proposed to reinstate and restructure large-scale translation teams, building on the foundation of elite translation. Prabhākaramitra believed the Former Qin and Later Qin Dynasties represented the zenith of sūtra translation in early medieval China. According to his view, this period saw the involvement of as many as 3000 translation scholars, who greatly contributed to the dissemination and comprehension of Buddhist texts (T50, no. 2060, vol. 4, 455). In these large-scale translation teams, scholars collaborated, exchanged ideas, and debated, resulting in more comprehensive and nuanced translations. These collective efforts produced works that gained broader acceptance from the public, as they went beyond the constraints of individual perspectives. Prabhākaramitra regarded this collaborative approach as superior to the elite translation methods, which were frequently limited to a few select translators.

Nonetheless, Prabhākaramitra’s proposal faced criticism from his contemporaries, who believed that assembling a large number of people for translation was a means to expand personal influence, attract disciples, exchange favors, and seek fame, rather than truly promoting the dissemination of Buddhism. Furthermore, the unhealthy trend of “selfishness and self-interest” (當世盛德，自私諸己) in early Tang society raised concerns among the learned that such practices could harm Buddhism (T50, no. 2060, vol. 4, 455). As a result, reviving the old model became challenging, as it was closely tied to the normative power of society at large.

Ultimately, Prabhākaramitra’s vision could not be realized, and it faded away amid public criticism. Nevertheless, Prabhākaramitra’s first-generation elite translation team undeniably pioneered a new collaborative translation approach, characterized by more stringent organization and distinct procedural divisions. This approach was inherited by subsequent translators, such as Xuanzang, and became the fundamental operational model for the royal translation teams of the Tang Dynasty. The contribution of Prabhākaramitra’s elite translation approach cannot be overlooked.

3.2 Xuanzang’s Elite Translation Team

3.2.1 Xuanzang’s Journey to the West and His Language Proficiency

Prabhākaramitra arrived in China to propagate Buddhism during the early years of the Zhenguan period. Although his time spent translating texts in the capital was brief, the translation model he established laid the groundwork for the elite translation efforts of the Tang Dynasty. Xuanzang’s renowned translation team, prominent in the history of Chinese translation, adopted the model established by Prabhākaramitra and engaged in collaborative translation work. Xuanzang was a celebrated Buddhist translator both within China and abroad. His journey to the West to obtain scriptures has been passed down through the ages, with numerous original historical documents recording his pursuit of Buddhist teachings. Extensive research has been conducted on this topic in later generations, making further elaboration unnecessary here. This section focuses on the biographical and historical examination of the translator’s life, with an emphasis on Xuanzang’s language learning. The aim is to explore when the master began learning languages of the Silk Road region (such as Sanskrit) to facilitate seamless communication in the Western Regions and enable him to translate scriptures from Sanskrit to Chinese.

According to existing historical materials, Xuanzang became a monk and studied Buddhism under his elder brother, Master Changjie 長捷法師, from a young age. He visited renowned monks in the Bashu and Jingwu regions, diligently studied the scriptures, and widely preached. However, at that time, he had yet to master Sanskrit. When Xuanzang returned to Chang’an at the beginning of Emperor Taizong’s reign, he started learning Sanskrit. The Jigujin Fodao Lunheng 集古今佛道論衡 (A Collection of Buddhist and Taoist Debates Throughout the Ages) states: “In the early years of Zhenguan, Xuanzang entered the capital, stayed at the Zhuangyan Monastery, and studied Sanskrit” (（玄奘）以貞觀初入關，住莊嚴寺，學梵書語) (T52, no. 2104, vol. 3, 387). Concurrently, Xuanzang prepared to travel abroad with companions to obtain scriptures and petitioned the imperial court for permission. Although permission was not granted, the master continued to actively learn foreign languages, visited foreign communities in the capital, and sought their guidance, preparing to leave the capital when the opportunity arose to fulfill his future needs. The historical record states, “He paused at the capital, extensively visited various foreign communities, learned their languages, and sought instruction everywhere” (頓迹京，廣就諸蕃，遍學書語，行坐尋授) (T50, no. 2060, vol. 4, 447). Based on this, it can be inferred that Xuanzang had some knowledge of Sanskrit and other Central Asian languages before embarking on his journey to India. Later, as he traveled to Western countries, he constantly interacted with local people, participated in Dharma assemblies, and practiced day after day. After nearly twenty years of experience, he mastered various languages and was able to skillfully translate Buddhist scriptures upon returning to China.

3.2.2 Debates on Translation Methods and the Formation of the Second-Generation Elite Translation Team

After over a decade spent collecting scriptures, Xuanzang returned to China on the twenty-fourth day of the first month in the nineteenth year of the Zhenguan era, bearing numerous scriptures and statues. Both the monastic and secular communities warmly welcomed him, with banners and flags lining the streets, creating a grand scene. Upon his return, Xuanzang met with Emperor Taizong to discuss the customs of the Western Regions and the translation of the scriptures. The Xu Gaosengzhuan 續高僧傳 (The Continuation of Biographies of Eminent Monks) recounts the following:

Emperor Taizong eagerly sought Xuanzang’s insights and repeatedly issued imperial edicts, urging him to return as soon as possible. However, for various reasons, Xuanzang’s return was delayed. Upon arriving at the palace, he proposed a collaborative translation approach and the selection of capable and wise individuals. Emperor Taizong responded: “Master, you are proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit and are articulate and intelligent. I am concerned that involving too many people with varying abilities might actually compromise the quality of the translations.” Xuanzang disagreed, citing previous translations involving 3,000 disciples. These translations were verified by a large audience and widely circulated, helping to prevent doubts and misinterpretations in future generations. Xuanzang persistently requested the recruitment of skilled translators to collaborate on the translation of scriptures. Finally, Emperor Taizong consented, organizing the second-generation elite translation team of the early Tang Dynasty. (T50, no. 2060, vol. 4, 455)

Though the above passage on translation methodology is brief, it significantly contributes to understanding the history of translating Buddhist scriptures in medieval China. It reveals the contrasting views of non-translators and Buddhist translators on collaborative translation, serving as vital historical material for studying ancient scripture translation. Emperor Taizong, as a non-translator, advocated for a streamlined translation process. He believed translations should be handled by a single individual proficient in both the source and target languages, thereby minimizing inconsistencies and errors. However, Xuanzang held different opinions, sharing similar views with Prabhākaramitra mentioned earlier. Both generations of translators emphasized that collaborative translation could improve the acceptance of translations, promoting not only collective wisdom but also ensuring the best possible translations. More importantly, it allowed the wider community to witness the translation process, confirming its authenticity and avoiding misunderstandings and forgeries in future generations. In ancient times, communication technology was not advanced, so information circulation mainly relied on word of mouth and written records. The more people who witnessed the translation process, the more it could dispel false claims. Therefore, collaborative translation could not only improve translation efficiency but also help promote the circulation and acceptance of translated works. The differing views of translators and non-translators each highlighted the pros and cons of collaborative translation, illustrating the practical implementation of this model in medieval China and aiding in understanding ancient Chinese thought on translating Buddhist scriptures.

3.2.3 Organizational Structure and Evolution of Xuanzang’s Translation Team During the Zhenguan Period

Xuanzang’s translation team began operating toward the end of the Zhenguan era and continued until the early years of Emperor Gaozong’s reign (628–683, reigned 649–683). The internal organization underwent changes, refining the collaborative model and making it more efficient. By integrating Xuanzang’s translation records, it is possible to illustrate the operational structure and evolutionary process of the translation team. An examination of Xuanzang’s team-based translation activities during the Zhenguan era provides valuable insights. According to the Cienzhuan 慈恩傳 (The Biography of Ci’en), Xuanzang’s translation team was initially established in the Hongfu Monastery, where a specific number of translators were selected to join and translate the scriptures. Among them, twelve were designated as “Eminent Scholars of Proof of Meaning” (Zhengyi Dade 證義大德), all of whom were proficient in both Mahāyāna and Theravāda scriptures and highly regarded by their contemporaries. Nine individuals were “Eminent Scholars of Text Composition” (Zhuiwen Dade 綴文大德), one was “Eminent Scholar of Lexicography” (Zixue Dade 字學大德), and one was “ Eminent Scholar of Sanskrit Language and Script” (Zhengfanyu, fanwen Dade 證梵語、梵文大德). The tasks were divided systematically, with Fang Xuanling overseeing the translation team’s supplies and personnel coordination, executing imperial orders, and ensuring thorough preparation, embodying the characteristics of an elite translation team. The original record is as follows:

In the third month of the year, Xuanzang returned to Chang’an from Luoyang and resided in the Hongfu Monastery. He prepared for the translation work by specifying the required roles, such as proofreaders, writers, and scribes, and submitted a proposal to the Minister of Works, Liangguo Duke Fang Xuanling. Fang Xuanling dispatched officials to arrange for the personnel and supplies according to the proposal, ensuring everything was well-prepared. In the sixth month of the year, twelve highly regarded individuals proficient in both Mahāyāna and Theravāda scriptures arrived, followed by nine “Eminent Scholars of Text Composition,” one “ Eminent Scholar of Lexicography,” and one “Eminent Scholar of Sanskrit Language and Script.” Other scribes and personnel responsible for supplies also arrived. (T50, no. 2053, vol. 6, 253-254)

Furthermore, the translation of the Yogācārabhūmi 瑜伽師地論 in the Taishō Tripiṭaka 大正藏 provides detailed information on the names, monasteries, and responsibilities of the monks involved in the translation process, offering valuable insights into the organization of Xuanzang’s translation team during the Zhenguan era. The translation of the Yogācārabhūmi into Chinese involved multiple steps. Initially, Xuanzang translated the original text into Chinese by himself, as he was proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit and well-versed in the principles of Yogācāra. This ensured consistency in translation and prevented misunderstandings. In addition, the initial Chinese translation required multiple stages of proofreading and editing, carried out by several collaborating monks: those responsible for the “proof of meaning” (Zhengyi 證義) were Wenbei 文備, Shentai 神泰, Daoshen 道深, Faxiang 法祥, Huigui 慧貴, Mingyan 明琰, and Daohong 道洪; “Proof of Sanskrit language” (Zhengfanyu 證梵語) was carried out by Xuanmo 玄謨; “Correcting characters” (Zhengzi 正字) was done by Mingjun 明濬 and Xuanying 玄應; “Proof of Text” (Zhengwen 證文) was managed by Bianji 辨機 (?-649), Jingmai靖邁, Xingyou 行友, Daozhi 道智, and Xuanzhong 玄忠. Moreover, five monks—Zhiren 知仁, Lingjun 靈雋, Daoguan 道觀, Daozhuo 道卓, and Mingjue 明覺—were in charge of “transcription” (Bishou 筆受), while court official Xu Jingzong 許敬宗 oversaw the “review of the translation” (Jianyue 監閱). Finally, “Scribes” (Shushou 書手) copied the finalized text, which was then distributed throughout the empire (T30, no. 1579, vol. 100, 881–882). From this, it is evident that Xuanzang’s translation team was highly organized and systematic, with more rigorous and specific translation processes and division of labor compared to earlier small-scale translation teams and large-scale translation teams, as well as the first-generation elite translation organization led by Prabhākaramitra.

3.2.4 Continuation and Transformation of Xuanzang’s Translation Team Under Emperor Gaozong

In 649, at the dawn of the twenty-third year of the Zhenguan era, Emperor Taizong passed away, leaving the throne to Emperor Gaozong. Gaozong remained committed to supporting the translation of Buddhist scriptures and promoting Buddhism, extending further patronage to Xuanzang’s translation team, which enabled Xuanzang to devote himself entirely to translating the scriptures. During Emperor Taizong’s reign, translation efforts were sometimes interrupted due to the emperor summoning monks for discussions on Dharma and the customs of the Western Regions. In contrast, under Emperor Gaozong’s rule, the focus was solely on translation, adhering to a set schedule that persisted into the night when required. This dedication led to the translation of a considerable number of scriptures.

During Emperor Gaozong’s reign, Xuanzang’s translation team received unwavering support and experienced two notable transformations. First, the emperor assumed responsibility for determining which Buddhist scriptures would be translated. As documented in the Cienzhuan 慈恩傳 (The Biography of Ci’en), Emperor Gaozong instructed Xuanzang to prioritize translating unavailable scriptures and to postpone working on those already in existence. This strategy established a specific sequence for translating scriptures. At that time, Xuanzang was eager to translate the Jñānaprasthāna 發智毘婆沙論, a scripture not yet thoroughly and accurately rendered in China, despite the availability of a previous version. However, due to Emperor Gaozong’s directive, the translation of the Jñānaprasthāna was delayed. Xuanzang then argued that the scripture was of great importance to scholars and sought special permission to prioritize its translation (T50, no. 2053, vol. 9, 272–273). This intervention in the selection of scriptures for translation marked a significant shift, as emperors from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty rarely intervened in such matters.

Secondly, the number of supervising officials assisting with the revision of translations increased. The supervision system, established during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, was inherited by the Sui and Tang Dynasties. Under Emperor Taizong’s rule, there were more supervising officials in the imperial translation team than in previous periods. Court officials like Fang Xuanling, Du Zhenglun, and Xiao Jing took up these positions, which had been previously held by monks and monastic officials. Under Emperor Gaozong, the court went further by directing officials such as Yu Zhining于志寧 (588–665), Lai Ji 來濟 (610–662), Xu Jingzong 許敬宗, Xue Yuanchao 薛元超 (622–683), and Li Yifu 李義府 (614–666) to regularly review and oversee translation matters. This enabled them to make necessary adjustments to translations, striving for precision in both language and meaning in Xuanzang’s translations. If additional scholars were needed, two or three more people could be enlisted. The participation of secular officials in translation marked an unprecedented change (T50, no. 2052, 218 & T50, no. 2053, vol. 8, 266).Footnote 1

In light of the increased involvement of the imperial court in the process of Buddhist scripture translation, Xuanzang explained that “although the translation of scriptures is done by monks, their value ultimately depends on the support of court officials” (譯經雖位在僧，光價終憑朝貴) (T50, no. 2060, vol. 4, 457). This implied that the greater the involvement and support of high-ranking officials in the translation process, the more it could be demonstrated that the translations were authentic and endorsed by the Tang court, thereby boosting their acceptance. This would encourage the general public to have faith in and uphold the scriptures, facilitating the circulation of new translations, which otherwise would not “shine far and wide” (不足光遠) (T50, no. 2060, vol. 4, 457). This rationale is consistent with Xuanzang’s advocacy for collaborative translation, aiming to harness the power of a third party to authenticate the accuracy of translation efforts, elevate the status of translated scriptures, and ultimately promote the dissemination of these texts.

3.2.5 Xuanzang’s Unique Approach to Translation

Historical sources provide insights into the unique characteristics of Xuanzang’s translations, which can be summarized into two main points:

  1. A.

    Xuanzang’s expertise in both Sanskrit and Chinese: Xuanzang excelled at translating directly from the original texts, requiring only minor modifications from the monks assisting him. This approach yielded high-quality translations that captivated readers. In contrast, previous translation missions often faced language barriers, leading to collaborative works that involved multiple contributors. These translations frequently displayed chaotic sentence arrangements, which resulted in omissions and insertions throughout the text, causing important expressions and concepts to be overlooked or misplaced. Xuanzang’s exceptional skills and profound understanding of the scriptures allowed him to act as the principal translator, referencing the original text while reciting the Chinese translation. His work was described as “decisive in meaning, and eloquent in language” (意思獨斷，出語成章) (T50, no. 2060, vol. 4, 455). Once he completed the initial draft, the scribes could simply follow and copy, earning him high praise from his contemporaries.

  2. B.

    Xuanzang’s dedication to preserving the original: Unlike Kumārajīva’s translation approach during the Later Qin period, which focused on simplifying complex content and reducing redundancy, Xuanzang’s translations prioritized faithfulness to the original text, ensuring the integrity of the content. While Kumārajīva’s translations were designed to be more accessible, aligning with the reading preferences of the Chinese audience, they did not always adhere strictly to the original text. Nonetheless, they remained true to the essence of the Buddha’s teachings, as exemplified by Kumārajīva’s translation of the Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra 大智度論 (T24, no. 1509, vol. 1, 57). In contrast, Xuanzang’s translations aimed to mirror the original text as closely as possible, making cuts only when absolutely necessary, with the Chinese translation of the Mahāprajñāpāramitāsūtra 大般若經 serving as a prime example (T50, no. 2053, vol. 10, 275–276).

As a result, when comparing the translation styles of Kumārajīva and Xuanzang, ancient scholars observed, “for conveying the meaning in translation, Kumarajiva is the best” (取意譯經，則什為最), and “for accurately representing the original text while reflecting its inherent features, Xuanzang excels” (敵對唐梵，則奘稱能) (T33, no. 1702, vol. 7, 227). Some also noted, “in understanding the meaning of translated scriptures, Kumarajiva of the Qin Dynasty was the best” (會意譯經，秦朝羅什為最), and “for maintaining the integrity and precision of translations, Xuanzang of the Tang Dynasty showcased exceptional skill” (若敵對翻譯，大唐三藏稱能) (T36, no. 1736, vol. 19, 148).

In conclusion, Xuanzang’s exceptional expertise in both Sanskrit and Chinese, along with his dedication to preserving the original text, set his translation approach apart from his predecessors like Kumārajīva. His team’s collaborative translation model and elite translation center approach, established during the early Tang Dynasty, efficiently combined the division of specialized labor with Xuanzang’s unique skills. This synergy resulted in high-quality translations that significantly influenced the dissemination and understanding of Buddhism in medieval China.

3.3 Concluding Remarks

The formation of elite translation teams under Prabhākaramitra and Xuanzang marked a turning point in the history of collaborative translation during the Tang Dynasty. These pioneering efforts laid the foundation for the imperial translation system that thrived in this era, aligning with the practical objectives of the Tang rulers while building upon the key strengths of earlier models.

Prabhākaramitra’s elite team introduced significant refinements in organization, procedures, and role distribution. By incorporating steps such as verifying the original text and rigorously proofreading and editing translations, Prabhākaramitra enhanced the collaborative models that preceded his. Although his vision for large-scale translation teams remained unfulfilled, his team initiated a more systematic approach to elite translation.

Xuanzang’s translation team built upon Prabhākaramitra’s innovations and further developed them in several ways. By assigning more specialized roles based on translators’ expertise, the collaborative process became more structured and efficient. Moreover, Xuanzang played a more substantial personal role in translation compared to Prabhākaramitra, due to his exceptional proficiency in both Sanskrit and Chinese. This ensured high-quality translations from the initial drafts. Lastly, increased imperial oversight on scripture selection and revisions by officials elevated the status and acceptance of Xuanzang’s translations.

To sum up, Prabhākaramitra and Xuanzang’s efforts to optimize the structure, processes, and delegation of roles within elite translation teams pioneered a revolutionary collaborative translation model. Their advancements aligned with the pragmatic aims of Tang rulers and integrated the collective wisdom of previous models. These two generations of translators established the initial framework for the Tang Dynasty’s formalized imperial translation system.