Keywords

This chapter provides a concise overview of the characteristics of sūtra translation from the Eastern Han to the Sui Dynasty, establishing the necessary historical backdrop for the entire monograph. During this transformative period, the translation of Buddhist scriptures underwent significant developments through the interplay of various models.

The translation journey began with small teams of foreign translators partnering with Chinese assistants, pioneering fundamental techniques in a nascent environment. Although these teams laid the groundwork for translation, their perspectives were initially limited. As patronage for Buddhist translation grew, vast translation assemblies emerged, mobilizing hundreds of scholars to collaborate and align drafts with the comprehension of Chinese readers. However, the fluctuating participation in these assemblies posed organizational challenges, highlighting the need for alternative approaches.

In response, the Tang court refined the small group model by expanding team sizes and specializing roles. This pragmatic evolution integrated the collective wisdom of translation assemblies through idea exchanges with selected participants. Supported by the imperial court, this sophisticated methodology facilitated the wide dissemination of sacred texts. Understanding the characteristics of sūtra translation during this period offers a window into both the challenges faced by translators and the innovative approaches they developed, setting the stage for further exploration of translation efforts during the Tang Dynasty and beyond in subsequent chapters.

2.1 The Development History of Small-Scale Translation Teams

The history of small-scale translation teams can be divided into several stages for discussion:

2.1.1 Stage One: The Eastern Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms

During the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period, group translation efforts involved a limited number of individuals. These groups typically consisted of foreign translators collaborating with local scholars or monks to translate the scriptures into Chinese. Common translation processes included the “two-step collaboration” and the “three-step collaboration.”

During the “two-step collaboration” approach, as demonstrated by the partnership of An Xuan 安玄 and Yan Fudiao 嚴佛調, the lead translator took on the task of interpreting the original foreign-language text into Chinese. Meanwhile, an assistant would carefully transcribe the lead translator’s interpretation and make necessary amendments. An Xuan, a knowledgeable lay Buddhist from Parthia, and Yan Fudiao, a diligent monk from Linhuai, gained recognition for their translation work on the Fa jing jing 法鏡經 during the late Eastern Han Dynasty (T55, no. 2145, vol. 6, 46).

An Xuan played a vital role in managing the translation process, orally conveying the text’s meaning in Chinese. Yan Fudiao, on the other hand, contributed by diligently transcribing and refining the prose. Together, their collaboration resulted in the effective translation of the sūtra, showcasing their expertise and dedication to the task at hand. Their partnership serves as an example of the two-step collaboration method employed during this period of Buddhist scripture translation (T55, no. 2145, vol. 13, 96).

Furthermore, the “three-step collaboration” can be observed in the group composed of Zhu Shuofu 竺朔佛, Lokakṣema 支樓迦讖, Meng Fu 孟福, and Zhang Lian 張蓮. Zhu Shuofu, an Indian native, undertook the translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā 道行般若經, while Lokakṣema, a Yuezhi native, was renowned for his adherence to precepts and diligent practice. In the second year of Emperor Ling’s Guanghe 光和 era, these four individuals collaborated in translating the Bhadrapālasūtra 般舟三昧經. Zhu Shuofu recited the original scripture, while Lokakṣema provided an oral translation, and Meng Fu and Zhang Lian recorded the oral translation for subsequent revision and dissemination (T55, no. 2145, vol. 7, 48).Footnote 1

In both cases, the collaboration among translators was driven by a desire to overcome limitations. The groups aimed to ensure accurate translations by drawing upon the complementary strengths of each member. The inclusion of local scholars or monks helped refine the translations to align with the complexities of the Chinese language and cultural context.

2.1.2 Stage Two: The Jin Dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms

During the era of the Jin Dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms, the group translation of scriptures underwent notable improvements. This stage was characterized by an increase in the number of participants, the addition of new translation steps, and an enhanced emphasis on proofreading and refining the translated texts.

Compared to the previous stage, the translation teams during this period involved a larger number of individuals. In addition to translators, there were scribes, proofreaders, and those responsible for formal writing of the translated texts. This expansion allowed for a more comprehensive and systematic approach to scripture translation.

One significant example from this period is the early translation of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka 正法華經 led by Dharmarakṣa in the seventh year of Taikang 太康 (286).Footnote 2 Dharmarakṣa assembled a team of translators and collaborators to work on this project. Nie Chengyuan 聶承遠 served as the main scribe, while others, such as Zhang Shiming 張仕明, Zhang Zhongzheng 張仲政, Zhu Li 竺力, Bo Yuanxin 帛元信, and Kang Nalü 康那律, assisted in the translation process. The translation procedure of Dharmarakṣa’s team can be divided into several key steps (Sengyou T55, no. 2145, vol. 8, 56–57):

  1. A.

    Interpretation: Dharmarakṣa, fluent in various Western Regions languages and Chinese, orally translated the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka from the original text into 27 chapters, following the strategy of maintaining the fidelity of the original text.

  2. B.

    Scribing: Multiple translators, including Nie Chengyuan, Zhang Shiming, and Zhang Zhongzheng, assisted in recording Dharmarakṣa’s oral translation, forming the initial draft of the translation.

  3. C.

    Proofreading: Zhu Li, an Indian monk, and Bo Yuanxin, a Kucha layman, were responsible for proofreading the translated text to ensure its accuracy and consistency with the original. This increased emphasis on proofreading represented a significant improvement compared to earlier periods.

  4. D.

    Writing the sūtra: Kang Nalü wrote out the complete sūtra in Luoyang after the translation and revision stages.

  5. E.

    Explaining the sūtra: Dharmarakṣa and other individuals, including laymen Zhang Jibo 張季博, Dong Jingxuan 董景玄, Liu Changwu 劉長武, and Liu Changwen 劉長文, provided oral annotations to ensure a correct interpretation of the scripture and further refine the translation.

  6. F.

    Final proofreading and circulation: Kang Nalü and others conducted a thorough review of the text at the Dongniu Monastery (Dongniusi 東牛寺). After finalizing the translation, a grand assembly was held to recite the sūtra, and the finalized scripture was then widely circulated.

The translation model during the era of the Jin Dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms demonstrated a more systematic and intricate organization compared to previous stages. It involved additional steps such as writing in Sanskrit, proofreading and refining, and formal writing of translated texts. The inclusion of translators proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit, as well as the increased emphasis on proofreading, contributed to more accurate and complete translations. This period marked an important advancement in the history of team-based scripture translation, providing a solid foundation for subsequent periods.

2.1.3 Stage Three: The Southern and Northern Dynasties

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589), the pattern of scripture translation continued the practices established in previous periods. Translation methods such as the “two-step collaboration” or “three-step collaboration” from the Eastern Han and the Three Kingdoms period, as well as the improved assistance method from the Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms period, were commonly employed. While the overall framework for the collaborative translation process remained stable, significant changes took place within specific translation organizations during the middle and late periods of the Southern and Northern Dynasties.

2.1.3.1 Introduction of a Supervisory System for Translation

During the Chen Dynasty, Upaśūnya 月婆首那 organized a translation team for the Suvikrāntavikrāmiparipṛcchā Prajñāpāramitā 勝天王般若波羅蜜經 and introduced a new role called the “supervisor” (jianzhang 監掌) to the translation process. Upaśūnya’s translation of the sūtra began in the sixth year of the Tianjia 天嘉 era (565) under Emperor Wen 文帝 (522–566, reigned 559–566). The preface of the scripture provides details about the translation:

On the twenty-third day of the seventh month in the sixth year of the Tianjia era, Upaśūnya was invited to begin the translation. A large assembly of over 5,000 people from various backgrounds gathered for the occasion. […] Upaśūnya interpreted the Sanskrit original into Chinese, holding the original text in hand. The next step involved the monk Zhixin, who listened to Upaśūnya’s oral translation, transcribed it, and then precisely proofread the transcription for accuracy. The final Chinese version, which comprised seven volumes, was completed on the eighteenth day of the ninth month in the sixth year of the Tianjia era. (T08, no. 231, vol. 7, 726)

Although Upaśūnya’s translation organization may appear similar to the teams in previous stages, it introduced a significant innovation—the emergence of the “supervisor” role. In the elite translation model of the Tang Dynasty, a similar position known as the “guardian” (jianhu 監護) existed (T50, no. 2061, vol. 3, 724). Typically held by court officials, the guardian was responsible for managing translation operations. While not directly involved in the translation process, the guardian played a central role in coordinating the affairs of translators and ensuring the smooth functioning of the translation team. The roots of this supervisory role can be traced back to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, specifically appearing in Upaśūnya’s translation of the Suvikrāntavikrāmiparipṛcchā Prajñāpāramitā. This indicates the gradual systematization of translation teams during the medieval period and the early emphasis on translation management.

2.1.3.2 Selection of Translators Based on Competence and Cultivation

One notable example involves the translation team led by Paramārtha, who played a decisive role in the early stages of translating the Yogācārabhūmi 十七地論 in Fuchun. Paramārtha received valuable support from the county magistrate, Lu Yuanzhe 陸元哲, and together they assembled a team comprising over twenty skilled individuals. This team included the esteemed monk Bao Qiong 寶瓊, who was instrumental in the translation efforts.

In the selection process, Lu Yuanzhe placed great emphasis on the exceptional talent of the assistants. Although the exact details of the selection process remain unclear, it is evident that during the Liang Dynasty, the monastic community gradually recognized the vital importance of translators’ background and scholarship. This shift marked a departure from the earlier stages during the Eastern Han and the Three Kingdoms period when translators were appointed without specific criteria.

This recognition of the importance of competence and cultivation in translator selection can be seen as a precursor to the elite translation practices that would later characterize the Tang Dynasty. The emergence of specific requirements and the growing emphasis on competence and cultivation laid the foundation for a more refined and rigorous approach to translation. The Xu Gaosengzhuan 續高僧傳 (The Continuation of Biographies of Eminent Monks) provides a comprehensive account, revealing the significant shifts that defined the Southern and Northern Dynasties (T50, no. 2060, vol. 1, p. 429).

2.1.4 Stage Four: The Sui Dynasty

During the Sui Dynasty, the translation process underwent significant advancements. The scripture translation team adopted a collaborative approach, building upon the model used during the Southern and Northern Dynasties. It combined the “two-step collaboration” and “three-step collaboration,” supplemented by a supervisory translation system led by the “Ten Great Virtues” (Shidade 十大德) (T49, no. 2034, vol. 12, p. 104 and T50, no. 2060, vol. 2, p. 434). As a result, the process of proofreading and translating the scriptures became more rigorous and thorough. The translation team also expanded in size, with dozens of translation assistants, contributing to the grand scale of their work. These developments laid a solid foundation for the highly skilled translation assembly that flourished in the Tang Dynasty.

One notable example is the translation team led by Jñanaśrīmitra 闍那崛多 (523–600). Jñanaśrīmitra, accompanied by his teacher Jñānayaśas 闍那耶舍 and fellow student Jñānagupta 耶舍崛多, arrived in China with the goal of promoting Buddhism and translating scriptures during the reign of Emperor Ming of the Northern Zhou Dynasty (557–581). However, when Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou Dynasty abolished Buddhism, Jñanaśrīmitra and other monks refused to return to secular life and sought refuge among the Turks to continue spreading Buddhist teachings. It was only when Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty assumed power that Jñanaśrīmitra was summoned back to the capital of Daxing to oversee the translation work (T49, no. 2034, vol. 12, p. 104).

Jñanaśrīmitra’s team included several translation assistants, such as Dharmagupta 達摩笈多 (?-619), a renowned translator of the Sui Dynasty known for his extensive translations. Gao Tiannu 高天奴 and Gao Heren 高和仁, two laymen brothers, also provided assistance in translating Sanskrit texts. The Ten Great Virtues, monk officials selected by the court for their virtue and talent, played a crucial role in reviewing the logical coherence of the translations. They included Sengxiu 僧休, Facan 法粲, Fajing 法經, Huicang 慧藏, Hongzun 洪遵 (530–608), Huiyuan 慧遠 (523–592), Fazuan 法纂, Senghui 僧暉, Mingmu 明穆, and Tanqian 曇遷 (543–608). Mingmu, one of the Ten Great Virtues of the Sui Dynasty, together with Yancong 彥琮, compared the Sanskrit and Chinese scriptures to ensure accuracy and oversaw the overall translation process (T49, no. 2034, vol. 12, p. 104 and T50, no. 2060, vol. 2, p. 434). Yancong, a prominent scripture translator of the Sui Dynasty, possessed exceptional linguistic skills, fluency in both Chinese and Sanskrit, and actively participated in translation affairs at the capital. His contributions to Buddhist translation theory, including “Eight Preconditions” (Babei 八備) and “Ten Rules” (Shitiao 十條), have survived as significant research materials in Chinese translation history.

The translation team led by Jñanaśrīmitra exemplifies the Sui Dynasty’s new and improved translation approach. While inheriting the collaborative translation model of earlier eras, the Sui Dynasty teams introduced significant enhancements. They established clear divisions of labor and implemented a hierarchical system. The chief translator handled the initial translation, while a group of scholars reviewed the logical coherence and authenticity of the translations. Another group ensured accuracy by comparing the translations with the original scriptures. This rigorous and systematic translation process guaranteed high-quality translations.

2.2 The Development History of Large-Scale Translation Teams

Prior to the Tang Dynasty, alongside small-scale translation teams, another model for collaborative translation of Buddhist scriptures emerged known as “large-scale translation teams.” These teams developed and flourished during the Eastern Jin, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties, presenting distinct characteristics:

  1. A.

    Extensive participation: Large-scale translation teams involved a significant number of participants, often ranging from hundreds to over a thousand. These participants comprised monks and Buddhist scholars from diverse regions.

  2. B.

    Two vital stages in the translation process: The translation process in these teams consisted of two primary parts: Translation and collaborative review. While the chief translator handled the actual translation into Chinese, the hundreds or thousands of assistant translators primarily engaged in the collaborative review phase.

  3. C.

    Collaborative review: The collaborative review process within the large-scale translation teams was more than a mere comparison between the original text and the translated version or revising Chinese sentences. It incorporated scriptural debate as a key activity. The chief translator would lecture on the initial Chinese translation, while the assistant translators listened attentively. If any ambiguities arose, the assistants would promptly ask questions, and the chief translator would provide clarifications. Through this iterative process of questioning and answering, collective wisdom was harnessed to identify unclear sections in the translation, align it with the understanding of Chinese Buddhist practitioners, and employ suitable translation strategies for corrections. Moreover, this platform served as an opportunity to disseminate the new translation by combining translation with lectures. Such a distinctive translation procedure characterized the large-scale translation teams.

During the Eastern Jin, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and Northern and Southern Dynasties, four notable large-scale translation teams emerged, each playing a significant role in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The details of the teams are as follows:

2.2.1 The Large-Scale Translation Team in the Later Qin

During the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms period, the Later Qin emerged as one of the separatist forces in the north. Founded by Yao Chang 姚萇 (330–393, reigned 384–393), a general from the Qiang tribe, the Later Qin replaced the Former Qin regime led by Fu Jian 苻堅 (338–385, reigned 357–385). Despite its relatively short reign, the Later Qin’s second emperor, Yao Xing 姚興 (366–416, reigned 394–416), was a devoted Buddhist who played a major role in promoting the translation of Buddhist scriptures (T51, no. 2068, vol. 7, 80). Under Yao Xing’s patronage, large-scale translation teams were established, attracting Buddhist scholars from various regions to assist in the translation and interpretation of sūtras in Chang’an, the capital city of the Later Qin.

The translation initiatives of the Later Qin era achieved remarkable productivity, notably the works of Kumārajīva, which have reached the status of classics and continue to exert a profound and enduring influence to the present day. Looking back at that era, several significant large-scale translation centers emerged, led by Kumārajīva, Buddhayaśas 佛陀耶舍, and Puṇyatāra 弗若多羅, among which Kumārajīva’s team was the most prominent. The following provides details about Kumārajīva’s translation work.

Kumārajīva, an eminent translator of the Buddhist tradition during medieval China, significantly contributed to the propagation of Mahāyāna Buddhism with his extensive and impactful translations. Originally from the Kingdom of Kucha, Kumārajīva hailed from a family of prime ministers and embraced monastic life at a young age under the influence of his mother. He possessed extensive knowledge of the Tripiṭaka, initially studying Theravāda before dedicating himself to the promotion of Mahāyāna Buddhism, earning the respect of several monarchs in the Western Regions.

Later, Fu Jian, the emperor of the Former Qin, dispatched Lü Guang 呂光 (338–399) to invite Kumārajīva to his kingdom to propagate Buddhism. However, following Fu Jian’s defeat in the Battle of Fei River, the Former Qin regime disintegrated. Upon hearing this news, Lü Guang declared himself the king of a new kingdom known as the Later Liang in the Hexi area. Unfortunately, Lü Guang’s lack of appreciation for Buddhism left Kumārajīva without the means to spread its teachings, compelling him to wait patiently for an opportune moment to propagate the Dharma.

Soon after, Yao Chang established the Later Qin regime in Chang’an. Yao Xing, the second ruler of the Later Qin, was enthusiastic about promoting Buddhism. He extended a warm invitation to Kumārajīva to translate Buddhist scriptures and received him with the highest honors as an imperial consultant. After Yao Xing launched a military campaign and defeated the Later Liang, Kumārajīva finally arrived in Chang’an during the early years of the Hongshi 弘始 era (399–416), commencing his work on translating Buddhist scriptures into Chinese with Yao Xing’s staunch support.

According to historical records of the translation of Buddhist sūtras during the Later Qin period, Kumārajīva’s translation work during the Hongshi era greatly benefited from Yao Xing’s patronage. Moreover, Kumārajīva discovered numerous discrepancies in the existing translations of Buddhist scriptures, which he deemed inconsistent with the original Sanskrit texts. Consequently, he ardently promoted the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.

Kumārajīva’s large-scale translation team was situated in various locations in Chang’an, including the Great Monastery (Changandasi 長安大寺), the Thatched Cottage Monastery (Caotangsi 草堂寺), and the Serenity Garden (Xiaoyaoyuan 逍遙園). The number of participants ranged from several hundred to over a thousand. For instance, the preface to the Brahmajālasūtra 梵網經 reveals that Kumārajīva and “over 3000 learned monks” (義學沙門三千餘僧) collaborated in the translation of the scriptures at the Thatched Cottage Monastery (T24, no. 1484, vol. 1, 997).

In addition, the preface to the Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra 大智度論 mentions that Yao Xing gathered more than 500 monks and scholars from the capital to undertake a translation project at the Serenity Garden on the Wei River. The emperor himself participated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures alongside Kumārajīva’s team. The following excerpt is taken from the original text:

In the third year of Emperor Qin’s reign, Kumārajīva completed his journey from Guzang to Chang’an on the twentieth day of the twelfth month. The Emperor of Qin, with an open mind, had already prepared for the translation of Buddhist texts. His heart was filled with more than just joy upon Kumārajīva’s arrival. […] He gathered monks and scholars from the capital, commanding over 500 to assemble at the Serenity Garden on the Wei River. […] He participated in examining the profound chapters and sought the correct names in the Sanskrit originals; he consulted on the key points, laying a foundation for future translations. (T24, no. 1509, vol. 1, 57)

Furthermore, during the translation of the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā 大品般若經, Yao Xing personally participated in the translation process and commissioned more than 800 monks, including scholars from various regions, to undertake the translation project at the Serenity Garden (T55, no. 2145, vol. 14, 101).

In summary, the Later Qin period marked a pivotal moment in Buddhist translation, as Emperor Yao Xing sponsored the formation of extensive translation teams in Chang’an, led by the renowned scholar Kumārajīva and other distinguished Buddhist experts. These teams attracted hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of monks and scholars who collaborated on translating Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. The efforts of Kumārajīva and his assistant translators greatly contributed to the dissemination of Mahāyāna Buddhism in China and left a lasting impact on the development of Chinese Buddhism.Footnote 3

2.2.2 The Large-Scale Translation Team in the Eastern Jin Dynasty

The translation activities conducted at the large translation center of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, especially the translation of the Avataṃsakasūtra 華嚴經 by Buddhabhadra 佛馱跋陀羅 (359–429) and his team, represent a significant chapter in the history of Buddhism in China. As a renowned monk from the Sixteen Kingdoms period, Buddhabhadra played a focal role as the lead translator in this monumental endeavor.

Buddhabhadra was a dedicated practitioner who embarked on a journey from North India to China, enduring numerous hardships along the way. His encounter with Kumārajīva, who was translating scriptures in Chang’an, was akin to a reunion of old friends. However, due to disputes in the translation team, Buddhabhadra eventually relocated to the Jin territory, where he continued his preaching and received support from both monastic and lay communities.

Establishing a significant translation center at the capital of the Jin Dynasty, Buddhabhadra and his team took on the task of translating the Mahāyāna canon, specifically the Avataṃsakasūtra. The translation process involved diligent steps and the collaboration of numerous individuals. The center was situated in the Daochang Monastery (Daochang Si 道場寺), established by the distinguished nobleman and military leader Xie Shi 謝石 (327–388), during the fourteenth year of the Yixi era 義熙 (418) (T9, no. 278, vol. 60, 788).

The translation of the Avataṃsakasūtra was a complex undertaking. In the initial step, Buddhabhadra recited the sūtra while holding the original Sanskrit text, which was a 36,000-verse manuscript brought from the Uḍḍiyāna Kingdom by Zhi Faling 支法領. The second step involved the recording of Buddhabhadra’s Chinese interpretation by the Buddhist translator Faye 法業. In addition, the translation center included over a hundred individuals, including Huiyan 慧嚴 and Huiyi 慧義, who worked diligently to ensure the accuracy and fidelity of the translation, bridging the gap between Chinese and Sanskrit (T55, no. 2145, vol. 14, 104).

The challenging translation work reached its successful conclusion on the tenth day of the sixth month, in the second year of the Yuanxi 元熙 period. The translated text was carefully edited and proofread, resulting in the compilation of the sixty-volume Avataṃsakasūtra. The translation process, along with the names of the translators and patrons, was documented in the postscript of the sūtra (T55, no. 2145, vol. 9, 61).

The profound influence of the Eastern Jin Dynasty’s expansive translation center, epitomized by its rendition of the Avataṃsakasūtra, was transformative and far-reaching. It marked a significant milestone in the transmission and integration of Buddhism from India into Chinese culture. The teachings and themes of the sūtra have shaped the development of Chinese Buddhism and influenced Buddhist thought and practice in East Asia, giving rise to the Huayan school of Buddhism.

2.2.3 The Large-Scale Translation Team in the Northern Liang

During the Northern Liang period, two prominent translation teams were established in the capital city of Guzang. These centers were founded by Dharmakṣema and Buddhavarman 浮陀跋摩 respectively, and Dharmakṣema’s team played a vital role in the translation of Buddhist scriptures.

Dharmakṣema, hailing from Central India, began his Buddhist studies at a young age under the guidance of Dharmayaśas 達摩耶舍. His exceptional intelligence and eloquence in expounding on scriptures earned him respect among his peers. Initially, he focused on studying Theravāda and the Pañcavidyā, but later delved deeper into Mahāyāna Buddhism with the aim of spreading its teachings widely. By the age of twenty, he had recited over two million words from both Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures. Dharmakṣema gained particular renowned for his mastery of mantras and became known throughout the Western Regions as the “Great Mantra Master” (Dazhoushi 大咒師) (T55, no. 2145, vol. 14, 102–103).

Dharmakṣema’s aspiration was to propagate the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra 大般涅槃經 and various Bodhisattva precepts. However, the Kucha Kingdom in the Western Regions adhered to Theravāda Buddhism, posing challenges to the dissemination of these teachings. Consequently, Dharmakṣema ventured eastward to Guzang, the capital of the Northern Liang Kingdom in Hexi. Juqu Mengxun 沮渠蒙遜 (368–433, reign 401–433), the ruler of the Northern Liang, was deeply committed to the Dharma and supported Dharmakṣema’s efforts to translate these scriptures into Chinese. After spending three years studying Chinese, Dharmakṣema established a large-scale translation center and commenced the translation of Buddhist texts.

Dharmakṣema adopted a collaborative approach to Buddhist scripture translation. He initiated the translation with the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra and subsequently worked on numerous Mahāyāna Buddhist scriptures. The preface to the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra describes the process as follows:

Dharmakṣema, a monk from India, was a Brahmin hailing from Central India. Endowed with great talents, sharp intellect, and eloquence, he possessed a comprehensive understanding of both the internal and external aspects of Buddhist teachings. Initially arriving in Dunhuang, he resided there for several years. The noble Juqu King of Hexi, a man of hidden virtues who established a prosperous kingdom, was always devoted to spreading the Dharma and establishing a city of enlightenment. It was through fate that the scriptures and prophecies arrived from afar. Once Dharmakṣema arrived here, on the twenty-third day of the tenth month in the tenth year of Xuanshi era, the King of Hexi encouraged him to undertake the translation. Holding the Sanskrit text in his hand, Dharmakṣema recited the words in Chinese. His sharp intellect and deep reverence for the Dharma were evident, and he meticulously and respectfully translated the text. He conducted thorough research on the original text and diligently endeavored to preserve its essence. His only regret was that the Sanskrit version was incomplete and not fully prepared. (T12, no. 374, vol. 1, 365)

According to the Chu Sangzang Ji Ji 出三藏記集 (A Collection of Records on the Tripiṭaka), the account of the translation process is as follows:

Mengxun, deeply committed to the Dharma and its propagation, requested that the scriptures be made available. However, Dharmakṣema, not yet fluent in the local language and lacking an assistant interpreter, was concerned about potentially distorting the teachings and initially declined. He dedicated three years to studying the language before embarking on the translation into Chinese. During this time, the monks Huisong and Daolang resided in Hexi and shared a deep respect for the propagation of the Dharma. They assisted in translating the Sanskrit text, with Huisong serving as the note-taker. Numerous laypeople and monks posed questions and doubts regarding the new translation, which Dharmakṣema promptly resolved. Huisong and Daolang requested further translations, leading to the translation of multiple works. (T55, no. 2145, vol. 14, 103)

Furthermore, the Gaosengzhuan 高僧傳 (Biographies of Eminent Monks) provides the following account:

Juqu Mengxun, the King of Hexi, gained control over the Liang territory and declared himself king. Upon hearing of Dharmakṣema’s reputation, he invited him and treated him with great hospitality. Mengxun was fervently devoted to the Dharma and its propagation, desiring to make the scriptures available. However, Dharmakṣema, not yet fluent in the local language and lacking an assistant interpreter, initially declined due to concerns about distorting the teachings. Consequently, he dedicated three years to studying the language and subsequently translated the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra into Chinese. Following this accomplishment, he went on to translate many other sūtras. Dharmakṣema’s wisdom and intelligence amazed both monks and laypeople, as he adeptly addressed their doubts and questions. (T50, no. 2059, vol. 2, 336)

These historical records reveal that Dharmakṣema’s team operated as a well-organized translation center in the Hexi region. He led the translation efforts, supported by Huisong 慧嵩 and Daolang 道朗, while numerous other monks and laypeople actively participated in discussions and debates. The translation work followed a systematic approach, ensuring the quality and accuracy of the translated scriptures.Footnote 4

2.2.4 The Large-Scale Translation Team in the Southern Song Dynasty

The large-scale translation team of the Southern Song Dynasty were led by Gunabhadra 求那跋陀羅 (394–468), a Brahmin from Central India who dedicated himself to the study of the Dharma. After leaving his non-Buddhist family, he pursued ordination and immersed himself in the Tripiṭaka, initially focusing on Theravāda teachings and later delving into Mahāyāna Buddhism. Gunabhadra’s profound understanding of the scriptures and his ability to eloquently explain them even led to the conversion of his own parents to Buddhism. With the goal of propagating the Dharma, Gunabhadra set out to travel eastward and eventually arrived in Guangzhou via a sea route in the twelfth year of Emperor Wen’s reign in the Song Dynasty (435). His arrival was reported to the royal court, and he was warmly welcomed and invited to the capital, marking the beginning of translation work in China.

Supported by the royal court and the monastic community, Gunabhadra commenced translating scriptures. He began with the translation of the Saṁyuktāgamasūtra 雜阿含經 at the Jetavana Monastery (Qiyuansi 祇洹寺), followed by the Mahābherihārakaparivartasūtra 法鼓經 at the Dong’an Monastery (Dongansi 東安寺). Later, he translated the Śrīmālādevīsiṃhanādasūtra 勝鬘經 and the Laṅkāvatārasūtra 楞伽經 in Danyang County. These translation activities are recorded in the Chu Sangzang Ji Ji 出三藏記集 (A Collection of Records on the Tripiṭaka):

Upon Gunabhadra’s arrival in Guangzhou, Governor Che Lang reported the news to Emperor Wen, who sent a delegation to welcome Gunabhadra. Once in the capital, Gunabhadra was greeted by monks Huiyan and Huiguan at Xinting on the outskirts of the city. Despite the language barrier, there was great joy and reverence among those who interacted with him. Initially staying at the Jetavana Monastery, Gunabhadra was soon invited and highly respected by Emperor Wen, attracting scholars and monks from all over the capital. Princes Yikang and Yixuan, sons of Emperor Wen, also studied under Gunabhadra. At the request of the monastic community, Gunabhadra began his translation work at the Jetavana Monastery, with over 700 disciples following him. Monk Baoyun served as the interpreter, while Hui Guan recorded the translations. Through extensive discussions and debates, they captured the essence of the texts, ensuring the accuracy and understanding of the translations. Later, Prince Qiao invited Gunabhadra to Jingzhou, where they established a new monastery and translated numerous other texts. (T55, no. 2145, vol. 14, 105)

The historical record emphasizes that Gunabhadra’s translations were often conducted at large-scale translation center. As Gunabhadra initially did not understand Chinese, he primarily focused on explaining the original texts while Baoyun 寶雲 translated them into Chinese. Huiguan 慧觀 played a crucial role in recording the translations. This collaborative approach resembled the translation sites led by Kumārajīva and Dharmakṣema, where a large group of assistants actively participated in questioning and refining the initial drafts of the translations. Gunabhadra would address their inquiries, thereby shaping the content to suit the understanding of the Chinese audience. This collaborative model of translation and collation was typical of the large-scale translation efforts during that era.

2.3 Concluding Remarks

The history of team-based Buddhist scripture translation leading up to the Tang Dynasty was characterized by two parallel models: small group collaborations and vast collective assemblies. Each model had its strengths and limitations, but their fusion resulted in innovative approaches that left lasting legacies.

During the Sui Dynasty, the small group approach emerged, with expanded team sizes and specialized roles. This allowed for precise cooperation among individuals with complementary expertise. However, this model sometimes suffered from the limitations of individual translators. On the other hand, the large assembly model that developed during the Sixteen Kingdoms era provided a platform for extensive collective deliberation, debate, and the pooling of wisdom. Hundreds of participants joined forces to refine draft translations, ensuring their alignment with the understanding of the general public. Nevertheless, organizing such sizable assemblies also posed challenges, including the potential for discord.

The elite translation model in the Tang Dynasty sought to integrate the best aspects of both approaches. It upheld the close collaboration and specialized roles found in small groups, while also embracing the exchange of ideas and inclusivity seen in large assemblies. This synthesis, coupled with selective participation and oversight, created an optimal structure suited for imperial patronage. Although large assemblies eventually declined, their spirit endured and influenced celebrated translations and the formalized Tang model. The ingenuity that drove this evolution highlights how adaptable efforts to balance accuracy and accessibility propelled China’s translation achievements during the medieval period.