Introduction

Abstract

This chapter sets the stage for my research project on the evolution of team-based Buddhist scripture translation by providing an overview of its background. It includes a literature review and highlights the limited research on translation institutions during the Tang era. Referring to Andrew Chesterman’s theoretical framework for the sociological study of translation phenomena, this chapter outlines three historical categories of Buddhist translation teams in medieval China, emphasizing the significance of studying the “elite translation teams” of the Tang Dynasty. Moreover, it explains the research methodology and chapter outline, along with the importance of this project in understanding the cultural interaction between China and the Western Regions, reconstructing the history of collaborative translation, bridging gaps in Translation Studies, and appreciating the wisdom of ancient Buddhist translators.

The history of Buddhist scripture translation in China boasts a rich and extensive heritage, tracing its roots to the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220) and flourishing during the Sui and Tang Dynasties (581–907). Over a period of nearly a thousand years, the remarkable accomplishments of translators in promulgating Buddhism can be observed throughout medieval China.¹ These translated scriptures encompass the Tripiṭaka, including sūtra, vinaya, and abhidharma, giving a priceless trove of philosophical wisdom for future generations.

In this book titled “The Evolution of Team-Based Buddhist Scripture Translation in Tang China: United in Dharma,” the objective is to offer a thorough examination of the translated scriptures, explore historical sources, and reconstruct the history of the apex era of the Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. This book highlights the diverse strategies employed by translators, who formed collaborative translation teams, overcame numerous challenges, translated a wide array of scriptures, and distributed them throughout China, ultimately inspiring the public to enhance their comprehension of Buddhist principles.²

1.1 Literature Review: Previous Research on Sūtra Translation Institutions

The existing body of literature on Buddhist translation institutions is relatively limited and can be classified into three primary categories:

• A. General overview of translation settings: These works offer a foundational understanding of the evolution, organization, and division of labor within ancient Chinese translation environments. For example, Wang Wenyuan’s 王文顏 (?-2012) Research on the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures provides a comprehensive summary (Wang 1984), while Funayama Toru’s 船山徹 How Were Buddhist Scriptures Translated into Chinese?—When Sūtras Became Classics delineates two distinct types of ancient Chinese translation settings: the open-style institutions, which facilitated public participation along with synchronous translation and lectures, and the closed-style institutions, which were strictly managed by professional translators (Funayama 2013).

• B. Focused discussions: This category includes papers that examine specific aspects of ancient Chinese translation activities. Cao Shibang 曹仕邦 (1932–2016) authored several papers on a variety of issues, including “On the Translation Methods and Procedures of Chinese Buddhist Translation Institutions” and “On the ‘Translation Institutions’ of Buddhism.” These works are compiled in A Study of the History of Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation (Cao 1992).

• C. Era-specific studies: These works analyze the translation institutions of particular historical periods. Liang Tianxi’s 梁天錫 The Dharma Transmission Court of the Northern Song Dynasty and Its Scripture Translation System focuses on the Song Dynasty (960–1279) (Liang 2003). Another example is Nishida Tatsuo’s 西田龍雄 (1928–2012) “The Buddhist Faith of the Western Xia People and the Translation of the Tripiṭaka,” which investigates the translation establishments of the Western Xia (Nishida 1977).

Drawing on the findings of prior research, this book sets out to analyze the collaborative translation of Buddhist scriptures during the Tang Dynasty. A focal point of this period is selected due to the translation history of Tang China being relatively under-explored, which presents a gap in research concerning the intricacies of translation institutions of that era. By undertaking a detailed examination of translation archives from the Eastern Han, Three Kingdoms, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, with special emphasis on the Tang era, the goal of this research is to augment the current understanding of the history of collaborative translation and to provide valuable insights specific to this context.

Furthermore, this research aims to illuminate the factors that contributed to the translation of Buddhist scriptures during the Tang Dynasty and to reveal the critical role these translation teams played in shaping Chinese Buddhism. By offering a comprehensive view of the organizational structures, translation processes, and the diverse positions assumed by participants within these institutions, this research elucidates the cultural and religious complexities of Tang China. This extensive study of translation institutions during the Tang period not only broadens the understanding of their internal dynamics but also addresses the existing research gap in the study of sūtra translation history in medieval China.

1.2 Chesterman’s Framework and the Evolution of Buddhist Translation Teams in Medieval China

In his article “The Name and Nature of Translator Studies,” translation scholar Andrew Chesterman introduced three main directions for expanding Translation Studies (Chesterman, 2009), in line with the “sociological turn” that emerged after the turn of the millennium (Chesterman, 2006). These include: (1) the sociology of translations, which focuses on the analysis of translation market demands and the functional roles of translated works (Chesterman, 2006, 17); (2) the sociology of translators, examining aspects such as status, compensation, working conditions, professional organizations, and public perceptions of translators from diverse backgrounds (Chesterman, 2009, 16); and (3) the sociology of the translation process, investigating activities and stages in the translation industry, such as practices, workflows, quality control, team collaboration, and relationships with agents and clients (Chesterman, 2009, 17; Chesterman, 2017, 123–146). Chesterman’s insights offer a structured approach to studying translation phenomena, including the history of Buddhist scripture translation, thus enriching research frameworks in related fields.

Using Chesterman’s third research direction as a foundation, this book examines the characteristics of team-based Buddhist scripture translation in Tang China and sheds light on the historical development of significant translation teams during this period. The Tang Dynasty is acknowledged as a key era in the history of Chinese Buddhism, marked by a surge in translation activities. Understanding the organization of Buddhist translation teams during this time illuminates the broader context of religious and cultural exchanges in Chinese history.

Prior to this period, the organization of Buddhist translation teams can be broadly divided into three categories:

• A. Category 1: The first category, “small-scale translation teams,” was prevalent during the Eastern Han, the Three Kingdoms (220–280), and the Western Jin (265–316) periods. Translators from the Western Regions, who came to China to spread Buddhism, often collaborated with Chinese scholars interested in Buddhism and foreign languages. These small groups, usually comprising a few individuals, worked together to translate Buddhist scriptures from foreign languages into Chinese. Their collaborative efforts played a crucial role in the early dissemination of Buddhist teachings in China. Notable examples include the team of An Xuan 安玄 in the Eastern Han and the team of Dharmarakṣa 竺法護 (239–316) in the Western Jin.

• B. Category 2: The second category, “large-scale translation teams,” emerged during the Eastern Jin (317–420) and the Sixteen Kingdoms (317–439) period. As Buddhism gained wider acceptance, rulers began supporting Buddhist scripture translation by funding the establishment of extensive translation centers that housed thousands of participants. These centers assembled individuals from various locations to collaborate on translation projects, aiming to produce high-quality scriptures and address earlier translations’ shortcomings. This period marked a significant shift in the scale and scope of translation efforts, reflecting the growing importance of Buddhism in Chinese society. Notable examples include the team of Kumārajīva 鳩摩羅什 (344–413) in the Later Qin (384–417) and the team of Dharmakṣema 曇無讖 (385–433) in the Northern Liang (397–439).

• C. Category 3: The third category, “elite translation teams,” gained prominence during the Tang Dynasty. As large-scale translation centers declined, elite translation, supported by small group translation, emerged as the standard for official translation projects. Resident translators were required to demonstrate exceptional skills and virtues while adhering to a strict division of labor. In certain instances, translations even required court approval prior to publication, indicating the high level of scrutiny and quality assurance in this era. This model initially took shape during the Sui Dynasty and was later formalized and implemented throughout the Tang Dynasty. Its roots can be traced back to the early Tang Dynasty when Prabhākaramitra 波羅頗迦羅蜜多羅 (565–633) established a translation center in Chang’an. Subsequent translators, such as Xuanzang 玄奘 (602–664), embraced and refined this model, ultimately solidifying it as the foundational system for official translation work.

To examine the growth and progression of the third category of Buddhist translation teams during the Tang Dynasty, this book performs a comprehensive analysis of various historical sources, including Sanskrit-Chinese scriptures, Tripiṭaka catalogs, prefaces to translated Buddhist texts, biographies of Buddhist translators, commentaries, literary notes, official historical records, and excavated documents. This multifaceted approach not only deepens our understanding of the translation process during this era but also unveils the sophisticated cultural and religious context of Tang China.

1.3 Chapter Outline

The book is structured into six chapters as follows:

• A. Chapter 1—Introduction: In this opening chapter, the foundation is laid by introducing the research topic, emphasizing its significance, detailing the materials utilized, presenting the chapter organization, and discussing the key issues explored throughout the book.

• B. Chapter 2—Tracing the Origins: Pre-Tang Translation Models: This chapter provides a concise overview of the characteristics of sūtra translation from the Eastern Han to the Sui Dynasty, establishing the necessary historical backdrop for the entire monograph.

• C. Chapter 3—Dawn of a New Era: Translation Efforts in Early Tang: Focusing on the reign of Emperor Gaozu 高祖 (566–635) and Taizong 太宗 (598–649), this chapter studies the translation contributions of Prabhākaramitra 波羅頗迦羅蜜多羅 and Xuanzang 玄奘. It also examines the organizational structures that facilitated their work, revealing the early foundations of Tang translation efforts.

• D. Chapter 4—The Golden Age: Tang Translation Initiatives in Full Swing: Spanning the reign of Emperor Gaozong 高宗 (628–683) to Emperor Daizong 代宗 (726–779), this chapter investigates the translation teams organized by Divākara 地婆訶羅 (614–688), Devaprajña 提雲般若, Śikṣānanda 實叉難陀 (652–710), Yijing 義淨 (635–713), Bodhiruci 菩提流志 (?–727), and Amoghavajra 不空 (705–774). It sheds light on the prosperous era of translation activities during the Tang Dynasty, highlighting the zenith of sūtra translation practices.

• E. Chapter 5—Fortitude in Flux: The Persistence of Translation Activities in the Changing Landscape of the Late Tang Period: This chapter discusses the resilience and adaptability of translation activities during the shifting political and social landscape of the Late Tang period. It closely examines the translation team led by Prajña 般若 during the reign of Emperor Dezong 德宗 (742–805), analyzing the organizational structure, strategies, and collaborative efforts that enabled the team to overcome challenges and continue their translation endeavors.

• F. Chapter 6—Conclusion: The concluding chapter synthesizes the main points of the book and briefly outlines potential future research directions. These include exploring translation organizations during the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties, as well as investigating the translation models embraced by translators in the post-Tang Dynasty era.

1.4 Research Methodology

To conduct this research, a blend of qualitative and quantitative methods is utilized. The investigation adopts a historical and socio-cultural approach to comprehend the development of collaborative translation of Buddhist scriptures in China.

• A. Historical analysis: A systematic examination of primary sources, such as Buddhist commentaries, Tripiṭaka catalogs, prefaces, biographies of translators, notes, and official historical documents, is undertaken. This analysis yields a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of translation practices and the cultural, political, and social contexts that shaped them.

• B. Textual analysis: Various types of historical materials, including excavated documents like Dunhuang manuscripts and Turpan documents, are studied to ensure a thorough investigation. Textual analysis concentrates on translation methods, language usage, and the process of adaptation and localization of Buddhist scriptures.

• C. Comparative analysis: A comparative approach is employed to pinpoint similarities and differences among different collaborative translation models in Tang China. This analysis unveils the distinct characteristics of each model and traces their evolution over time.

• D. Case studies: Select translation teams or organizations serve as case studies, providing a detailed exploration of their translation processes, division of labor, and challenges encountered. These case studies furnish valuable insights into the practical aspects of collaborative translation in medieval China.

1.5 Research Significance

The significance of this research project can be outlined in four key points:

• A. Unveiling Chinese history through a unique lens: While studies of Chinese culture often highlight its more observable attributes like traditional dress and cuisine, the practice of translation offers a unique window into the nation’s historical narrative. Christopher Rundle, a prominent scholar in Western Translation Studies, has posited “translation as a method to understand history” (Rundle, 2012), a concept that this book embraces. It investigates the profound influence of translating Buddhist scriptures from the Western Regions on Chinese society, a process that extended beyond linguistic translation to significantly impact Chinese thought, religion, and values. These translated texts served as vessels of cultural exchange, shaping the intellectual and spiritual landscape in ancient China. This book intends to highlight this influential aspect of China’s heritage, providing readers with a comprehensive understanding of the crucial role translation has played in the evolution of Chinese history.

• B. Reconstructing the history of medieval Buddhist translation teams: Although previous studies have recognized the significant contributions of renowned individual Buddhist translators in Chinese history, there is a lack of complete survey of the collective efforts of monk translators. This book aims to fill that void by offering a fresh and innovative perspective. It focuses on translation teams as the primary units of analysis and extensively explores a wide range of historical texts. Through this approach, this research provides an in-depth and engaging narrative of the collaborative endeavors involved in translating Buddhist scriptures during Tang China. This inquiry not only deepens readers’ understanding of the intricate interactions and vital contributions of these translation groups but also underscores their pivotal influence on the evolution of Chinese translation discourse.³

• C. Bridging the gaps in Translation Studies: The subject of “translation history” holds significant importance within the field of Translation Studies (Delisle & Judith, 1995; Pym, 1998). However, existing research encounters three primary limitations: a predominant focus on Western translation activities (Raine, 2014), an emphasis on Chinese translation history primarily from a translation theory perspective (Zhu & Zhu, 2006), and insufficient exploration of collaborative translation efforts (Cheung, 2014). This monograph aims to overcome these limitations and foster scholarly dialogue by addressing these deficiencies. Through in-depth research and analysis, its goal is to bridge the gaps in current literature and facilitate a deeper understanding of translation history, particularly in the context of collaborative translation activities.

• D. Embracing the wisdom and skills of ancient translators: Translators of Buddhist scriptures were ardent in their pursuit of finding the perfect rendition for each word, ensuring both fidelity to the original text and comprehension for the Chinese audience. This book not only provides a gateway for readers to explore the historical facts surrounding Buddhist scripture translation activities in Tang China but also presents invaluable insights into the ingenious methods, such as naturalizing and domestication (Schleiermacher, 2012; Venuti, 2008), employed by these translators to navigate the complexities of cross-language texts and surmount cultural barriers.⁴ Beyond historical appreciation, the knowledge gleaned from this exploration can be applied to daily life, enhancing problem-solving abilities and fostering a deeper understanding of effective communication across diverse contexts.