Keywords

Background

Special Religious EducationFootnote 1 (SRE), commonly known as ‘scripture’, is a faith-based religious education program delivered in New South Wales (NSW) public schools since the mid-1800s. The Department of Education and Training NSW defines SRE as “…the beliefs and practices of an approved religious persuasion delivered by authorised representatives of that persuasion…”.

The right for students to receive SRE has been embedded in NSW education legislationFootnote 2 since the Public Schools Act 1866 (NSW) s 19, which stated:

In every public school … a portion of each day not less than one hour shall be set apart when the children of any one religious persuasion may be instructed by the clergyman or other religious teacher of such persuasion…Footnote 3

However, between 1866 and 1990 (the current Education Act), SRE legislative requirements of making SRE available in public schools were drastically reduced from being at least one hour daily to at most one hour weekly. According to an independent review of SRE (ARTD Consultants, 2016) and my own on-the-ground experience, today in NSW public high schools, even this one-hour weekly SRE lesson is unavailable for all students of faith backgrounds. This independent review of SRE found that although most NSW government schools participate in SRE (92% primary and 81% secondary schools), within these schools, student participation was 71% in primary and 30% in secondary schools (p. xv). The review also found that most parents (84%) whose children attend SRE were satisfied or mostly satisfied with their children’s SRE learning experience (p. 107); SRE teachers are primarily volunteers (p. xxvii); and managing teacher absences, timetabling, finding classroom space, and the low rate of participation in high schools are among the main challenges in facilitating onsite SRE classes (p. 79). However, participation in any subject could likely decline if student attendance was optional, and the provision was operating with limited resources, and taught after school or at lunchtime.

Unlike Australia, some Western governments fund public school programs equivalent to SRE. In Belgium, educators believe the program facilitates peaceful coexistence, encourages intra-faith and interfaith dialogue, and addresses the meaning and purpose of life (Galindo, 2019). In Germany, the program is seen as a litmus test for integration when minority faiths are represented, as it has a positive symbolic impact on these minorities (de Pommereau, 2010).

With this SRE background in mind, NSW public high schools have the scope to enhance SRE so that students of faith backgrounds have weekly access. This study plans to achieve this by introducing and evaluating an asynchronous online SRE 10-week intervention in two Sydney public high schools. A mixed-method, randomised control trial for a minority cohort—Muslim SRE—will be conducted as a case study. The theory of practice architectures (TPA) (Kemmis et al., 2014) will frame the design and evaluation of the intervention. The TPA framework promises to be an appropriate resource by providing the concepts, language, and structure to reflect on results and provide evidence-based, morally committed recommendations that promote a future of living well in a world worth living in for all.

The remainder of this chapter presents the relevant underpinning literature from the fields of adolescent wellbeing, religion, and education.

Adolescent Wellbeing

High school students, the main study participants, fall within the age-based definitions of ‘children’, ‘adolescents’, ‘young people’, and ‘youth’. Sawyer et al. (2018) define adolescence as ages 10–24. The terms ‘health’ and ‘wellbeing’ are used interchangeably, as “health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing…” (World Health Organisation, 2020, p. 6).

The World Health Organisation (WHO) asserts that adolescence is a pivotal period of cognitive and behavioural development, requiring the establishment of policies and programs that cater for such developmental needs and rights (World Health Organisation, 2011).

Among other considerations, policies and programs must consider that life-long consequences of adolescent wellbeing can be impacted by changes that occur during this period, and changes taking place during adolescence are influenced by characteristics of both the individual and the environment (World Health Organisation, 2014). Accordingly, improving youth wellbeing and mental health was the focus of The United Nations’ latest Global Youth Survey (United Nations, 2021a). Likewise, the World mental health report: Transforming mental health for all (World Health Organisation, 2022) urges decision-makers to increase commitment and action in approaches to mental health care. Furthermore, based on the 2023 Youth Survey Report, for Australia's general youth population, equity, discrimination and mental health were among the top concerns (McHale et al., 2023). In the latest Australian national study of mental health and wellbeing, 39.6% of youth aged 16–24 had a 12-month mental health disorder in 2020–21.

In addition to experiencing similar concerns to their peers, Muslim youthFootnote 4 face unique issues. Studies published over the past two decades since 11 September 2001 show that Muslim youths’ lives, identity, and feelings of belonging have been impacted by public scrutiny, counter-radicalisation and counter-terrorism policies, and excessive hostile media directed at them (Ozalp & Ćufurović, 2021). Hasan (2018) reported, “(a) quarter of all Muslim children in Australia are living in poverty, compared with 13% of all Australian children” (p. 12). At the same time, Markus (2018), in a social cohesion report, indicated that Australian Muslim youth belong to the most disliked minority group in Australia (p. 69). Furthermore, 36% of the reported Islamophobic attacks were aimed at Muslim children or in their presence (Iner, 2019, p. 33). As a result of Islamophobic attitudes, Muslim children suffer from abuse and physical harm (Iner et al., 2019, p. 14). To make matters more complex, Muslim youth have developed issues with identity and belonging (Akbarzadeh, 2016; Hosseini & Chafic, 2016), drug and alcohol addictions, crime (Amath, 2015; Kabir, 2011), and violent extremism (Hosseini & Chafic, 2016). According to a study by Grossman and Tahiri (2015), radicalisation and extremism are mainly driven by identity and belonging issues, and informed by racism, social exclusion, and marginalisation (p. 9).

Such health and societal concerns not only negatively impact individuals, their families, and the community, but they also come with an economic burden. For instance, the Australian Government expenditure on mental health-related services in 2020–21 was $11.6 billion. In total, mental illness costs Australia about $200–220 billion per year (Australian Government Productivity Commission, 2020). If total costs of the other adolescent wellbeing concerns, such as drug and alcohol abuse, crimes, and violent extremism, are factored in, it becomes evident where reform efforts should be focused.

With such serious adolescent health and wellbeing concerns, it is appropriate that national education goals for the twenty-first century, as stated in the Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education Declaration, are aimed at “promoting the intellectual, physical, social, emotional, moral, spiritual and aesthetic development and wellbeing of young Australians…” (Education Council, 2019, p. 2).

In summary, adolescence is a pivotal period in human development, and Australian adolescents face many wellbeing issues. High school educators face the challenge of implementing policies and programs to reach holistic wellbeing and education goals for all students. Online SRE is well-positioned to help achieve such goals, mainly (but not limited to) the spiritual, emotional, and moral wellbeing goals for adolescents with a faith background. This would alleviate much of the burden on individuals, families, communities, and the economy.

Religion

Religion is a worldview by which individuals, through their faith and beliefs, develop an ethical code of living (Badri, 2014). Moreover, such beliefs and thinking play a central role in wellbeing psychology, specifically cognitive therapy (Balkhi cited in Badri, 2013, p. 11), which is often used to improve mental health.

The following presents the significance of religion to society at large, adolescents in general, and Muslims in particular.

Significance of Religion in Society

Religion is an integral and relevant part of Australian society. The latest 2021 Australian census (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022) showed that 93% of the population answered the question on religion—the only optional question in the census. The majority of Australians, around 55%, identified with an organised form of religion, while almost 39% indicated ‘no religion’, which includes spiritual and secular beliefs. Bouma (2018) pointed out that when ‘no religion’ is marked on the census, it does not mean the person lacks spirituality or is anti-religious; instead, it means they do not identify with a specific organised form of religion.

Moreover, Australian secularism acknowledges religion as one voice among many in the public sphere; that is, it does not endorse one voice to the exclusion of other points of view (Taylor, 2007). Such secular states are described as religiously plural. Australia is considered a secular nation based on s 116 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, which prohibits laws restricting free participation in religion. The intent here is to “protect the religion (or absence of religion) of minorities, and, in particular, of unpopular minorities” (cited in Adelaide Company of Jehovah’s Witnesses Inc v Commonwealth (1943) HCA 12). Because Australia is a secular and pluralist nation of many religions and beliefs, programs such as SRE exist and should continue to exist.

Australia is also a signatory to international treaties protecting religious freedom in public places. Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) declares the fundamental human right of freedom of religion, where people are free to learn, practice, and teach a religion of their choice in private and public. This automatically applies to compulsory schooling hours in public schools. Also, The Religion Declaration (Article 4) (General Assembly resolution 36/55, 1981) and the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (United Nations Human Rights Commission [UNHRC], 1992) require that signatories and member states protect the cultures and identities of minorities as this contributes to social and political stability.

Therefore, protecting minority rights, cultures, and identities through programs such as SRE is critical in aiding national security and social cohesion, and preventing conflict.

Furthermore, religious participation offers pathways to a more socially cohesive society. Pepper et al. (2019) found that “religious participation generates social capital, leading to higher social cohesion” (p. 11). This study compared data from the 2016 National Church Life Survey and the 2016 Australian Community Survey to measure social cohesion among Australian churchgoers with the general population. They found that “social cohesion metrics were stronger among churchgoers than the wider population across the domains of belonging, social justice, civic participation, acceptance of others and worth” (p. 1).

In summary, these findings indicate that

  • Religion is significant in terms of the number of participants.

  • The Australian constitution and international treaties protect people’s rights to learn, practice, and teach their religion publicly and privately.

  • Religion positively impacts the social cohesion and political stability of Australian society.

  • Religion enhances civic engagement, social justice, feelings of belonging and worth, and acceptance of others.

Significance of Religion to Adolescence

The benefits of religion to human health and wellbeing are established in many studies (Abu-Raiya & Pargament, 2012; Estrada et al., 2019; Ferris, 2002; Harris, 2016; Koenig, 2009, 2012; Myers, 2000; Weber & Pargament, 2014, to name a few). In Readiness for Religion: A Basis for Developmental Religious Education, Goldman (2018) asserts that there is an emotional readiness for religion noted in much research on adolescence. Over time this has remained constant; six decades earlier, Argyle (1958) similarly found that adolescence “is the age of religious awakening” (p. 43). Hence, for adolescents searching for truth to fulfil their emotional and intellectual needs, Goldman argues that schools need a “more radical change of teaching content and method” (2018, para. 9).

This is affirmed by a social epidemiological studyFootnote 5 by VanderWeele (2017), highlighting the role of education and religious community on human wellbeing.

VanderWeele reviewed empirical literature from longitudinal, experimental, and quasi-experimental studies and argued that most empirical evidence concurs that human ‘flourishing’ or wellbeing requires, at the very least, doing or being well in five broad areas of human life. These are (i) happiness and life satisfaction, (ii) health, both mental and physical; (iii) meaning and purpose; (iv) character and virtue; and (v) close social relationships (p. 2). VanderWeele then pointed out that family, religious community, education, and work are significant and relatively common pathways that have reasonably sizeable effects on each of the five contributors to wellbeing mentioned above. Online SRE combines two major pathways, namely ‘education’ and ‘religious community’, to impact adolescent wellbeing positively.

Using the above theoretical framework, Chen and VanderWeele (2018) employed an outcome-wide analysis of longitudinal data. They found that frequent religious participation in adolescence correlated positively with a wide range of health and wellbeing outcomes, including “psychological well-being, character strengths, and lower risks of mental illness and several health behaviours” (Chen & VanderWeele, 2018, p. 7). Based on these findings, the researchers conclude that promoting religious practice and service attendance could be meaningful pathways of development and support for adolescents with a faith background (p. 1). In public high schools, the SRE program is the only meaningful pathway to promote religious participation and practice for adolescents with a faith background.

Further empirical evidence (Harris, 2016) shows a correlation between 57-character strengths and religiousness, spirituality, or other spiritual constructs. Harris demonstrated this by analysing 913 peer-reviewed articles and tabulating the number of articles reporting this correlation. For example, 45 articles reported an empirical correlation between religiousness and mental health.

In another study, Park et al. (2019) examined 22 empirical studies that measured the mental wellbeing of non-religious and religious individuals. Their results showed that religious people accrue mental health benefits that non-religious individuals, on average, do not accrue (p. 92). This concurred with a more extensive study by Koenig (2012), which examined relationships between depression and religion by reviewing data from 100 qualitative studies. This review found that positive mental wellbeing levels were significantly greater in religious people. Additionally, many other studies (Estrada et al., 2019; Ferris, 2002; Koenig, 2009; Myers, 2000; Weber & Pargament, 2014) demonstrated that religion positively impacts overall wellbeing, physical health, and happiness levels.

Further supporting evidence was found in an extensive SRE report (Gross & Rutland, 2021) that included findings from two SRE studies. These studies found that SRE in government schools is important and valuable to students and society. The first study revealed that SRE provided students with “a safe place” and “contributed to the children’s sense of connectedness within the community, promoted their feeling of security and provided them with a protective safety net of identity capital and spirituality” (Gross & Rutland, 2016, p. 44). The second study analysed course content taught by different faiths in SRE on the theme of ‘care and compassion’ and found this promoted vital elements of values education as found in the National Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools. Additionally, the report highlighted that SRE is a strategic pathway to enrich a multicultural society, counter religious fundamentalism and extremism, and address racism and prejudice.

In summary, religion is significant to adolescents because

  • Religion helps one develop an ethical code of living.

  • Beliefs and thinking play a central role in wellbeing psychology, specifically cognitive therapy.

  • During adolescence, there is an emotional readiness for religion.

  • Religious community and education are two major pathways to wellbeing.

  • There is a correlation between religion and mental health and many character strengths.

  • SRE research shows it creates a ‘safe place’, enhances identity capital and spirituality, and promotes values education and multiculturalism.

Significance of Religion to Muslims

As the online SRE intervention will be conducted as a multi-case study with Muslim students, this section presents the significance of religion (Islam) to Muslims.

The recent Islam in Australia Survey (Rane et al., 2020) surveyed a representative sample of the Australian Muslim population (n 1034), and it highlighted relevant identity and practice data concerning Muslims. Nearly, all respondents (96%) considered Islam either very important (80%) or important (16%) to their identity. Most respondents (87%) indicated they publicly identify as a Muslim, and 77% said they pray ‘daily’. Remarkably, being ‘Australian’ ranked the most frequent response by participants when asked about their cultural/ethnic/national identity.

This suggests that for the majority, practising Islam does not distance them from being Australian. This concurred with the findings of Dunn et al. (2015), who pointed out that it was indicative of Muslims’ resilience—a character strength that promotes wellbeing—for Muslims to support diversity and hold views on Islam’s compatibility with Australian norms despite their experience of high levels of racism: “Australia’s values of diversity and multiculturalism give hope to Australian Muslims, adding to the resilience needed for dealing with the pressures of Islamophobia and racism” (p. 38). Additionally, Atie et al. (2017) explain that it is not only Australia’s official multiculturalism that fosters this positivity among Muslims, but it is also “tenets of Islamic thinking on toleration and moderation” (p. 1).

The Islam in Australia Survey also highlighted influential sources of information and knowledge for Muslims. Australian Muslims indicated that the two most influential sources for their current understanding of Islam were the Quran (82.5%) and Hadith (66.44%). In contrast, almost 30% indicated that ‘school’ was ‘very important’ or ‘somewhat important’. This shows the scope for public schools to influence Islamic education for Muslim students.

For the Islam in Australia Survey question on ‘openness to new knowledge’, almost all respondents (98%) were either completely open (51%), very open (37%), or somewhat open (10%) to new knowledge. This points to the likelihood of Muslim adolescents being open to receiving new knowledge via online Islamic SRE based on sources important to them—the Quran and Hadith.

Another question in the Islam in Australia Survey (Rane et al., 2020) pointed to the need for religious education. A sizeable minority (15–34%) of respondents answered that they were ‘unsure’ of how the Quran should be interpreted, pointing to the need for increasing access to this knowledge. Muslims must clearly understand Islamic principles such as preserving life, refining character, bringing benefit, removing harm, and being truthful, patient, and just. This is especially important concerning the threat of radicalisation. Rane (2019) notes that Australian courts regularly found that religious beliefs were central in the commission of crimes committed by Muslim terrorism offenders, including adolescents (p. 2). After extensive analysis, Rane shows that the offenders’ understandings of Islam were not reflected in the Quran, Hadith, or the consensus of classical Islamic scholars. On the contrary, Rane shows that these sources of Islamic knowledge promote peaceful coexistence and advocate considerate and respectful interfaith and intercommunity relations (p. 19). Likewise, Atie et al. (2017) found that most Muslim youth who practice Islam display resilience and a more positive attitude towards Australia. For these positive aspects of Islam to be widely practised, Rane (2019) recommended teaching Islamic studies to Muslim adolescents through an evidence-based and critical-analytical approach. This concurs with the view of Lovat (2016), who stated

In a day and age that has seen Islam captive to Islamophobia at one end and radicalisation at the other, it is incumbent on educators everywhere to inform themselves and their students about the Islamic tradition, as evidenced from the best sources and the most balanced record available to us. (p. 1)

Relevant to radicalisation but not specific to Muslims, Huesmann et al. (2011) examine data from a 40-year prospective longitudinal study to determine religiosity’s role in influencing adulthood aggressiveness. They found that the religiosity of grandparents, parents, and children is a long-term protective factor against aggressive behaviour from childhood to adulthood.

These findings justify the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Centre’s efforts to use youth education programs (2019) to counter and prevent aggression in the form of terrorism and violent extremism, promote a culture of peace and tolerance, and develop respect for human dignity, pluralism, and diversity. Given that Islam and other religions aim to promote such values, it is well within the interest of public schools to provide Muslim students with Islamic religious education delivered through the SRE program. Besides, O'Brien (2015) noted that most radicalised youth in Australia were from public schools, not religious ones. Not all Muslim adolescents are resilient to Islamophobia, racism, and other societal pressures; hence, a government-supported preventative education program would be appropriate. On this view, it might be argued that SRE could be a mass-scale, cost-effective, and practical way to achieve the intended results of such a program.

Another rationale for Muslim online SRE is based on Islamic psychology (Pasha-Zaidi, 2019), which concurs with Indigenous psychology (Kim et al., 2006). Such theories recognise that psychological mindsets are not universal and, therefore, require that culture-specific programs be designed to relate to the specific beliefs of groups. SRE programs cater to faith-orientated mindsets. To illustrate, Muslims believe the Quran and Sunnah,Footnote 6 which detail a comprehensive code of living, are their ultimate guides to complete success. Part of the mission of Islamic SRE aims to “… inspire and empower our youth to develop a strong Islamic identity in order for them to contribute positively to their own development, their societies, communities and the world” (Islamic Special Religious Education, 2023). In this way, Muslims aspire to live well and contribute to a world worth living in for all.

To summarise, the justifications for online Islamic SRE classes for Muslim adolescents include the following:

  • Practising Muslims display favourable attributes for personal and societal wellbeing.

  • The few Muslims turning to violent extremism consistently misuse Islam to justify violence (Rane, 2019), which indicates authentic Islamic education is needed.

  • The Quran and Hadith are Muslims’ most influential sources of information on Islam.

  • Public schools have the scope through SRE to facilitate authentic Islamic education.

  • Most Muslims are open to learning.

  • Psychological theories affirm that culture-specific content is required for education to be practical, relevant, and effective for students.

Purpose of Education—Islamic and Western

The purpose of education also underpins the Muslim online SRE study as a pathway to adolescent wellbeing for Muslims. From an Islamic perspective, seeking beneficial knowledge is compulsory for every Muslim (Hadith, Sunan Ibn Mājah 224). Islam distinguishes between beneficial and non-beneficial knowledge and righteous and unrighteous actions. The primary purpose of education in Islam for individuals and societies is to bring benefit and remove harm. Similarly, Kemmis and Edwards-Groves (2018), TPA theorists, view education as practices that help people ‘live well in a world worth living in’.

Education is at the forefront of the allied disciplines dealing with adolescent wellbeing. From classical to modern psychologists, there is an understanding that behavioural and psychological change in individuals is better suited to education rather than medicine or therapy. This means schools are well-positioned to achieve wellbeing pursuits through the process of learning beneficial practices. For example, one can learn to replace habitual emotional overreactions with balanced and reasonable reactions (al-Balkhi, Tusk cited in Badri, 2013, pp. 14–15). Since belief and thinking are central to behavioural change, this highlights the place and importance of religious education in facilitating the learning of new positive behaviours that can positively impact wellbeing.

This transformative role of education is also deduced from its Latin derivatives—‘educare’ and ‘educere’. Respectively, these connote ‘to bring up’ and ‘to bring forth’. Islamic education has concepts with similar meanings—tarbiyyah and ta’leem. Tarbiyyah means ‘upbringing’ holistically. While Ta’leem refers to the teaching and learning of beneficial knowledge and actions or practices, usually through training and instruction. Ta’leem is said to ‘bring one forth’ from darkness into light. That is, the darkness of wahn (covetousness) and ignorance; into the light of fahm (understanding/realisation).

Ta’deeb is another Islamic education concept (Al-Attas, 1977), from the root word adab, which generally means etiquette (refinement, manners, appropriateness). Technically, Ta’deeb refers to teaching the application of knowledge in its appropriate place (cited in Abdullah et al., 2015, p. 514). An accurate definition of Islamic education encompasses all three aspects—tarbiyyah, ta’leem, and ta’deeb, and its central aim is to develop the four core components of human beings—the spirit, heart, body, and intellect—in a manner aligned with their purpose (Bin Omar cited in Boyle, 2004, p. 15).

Consistent with the above concepts of Islamic education, well-rounded youth education is reclaiming its place in educational goals. The Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education Declaration, (Education Council, 2019, p. 2) states that youth education in the twenty-first century must nurture the spiritual, intellectual, moral, emotional, social, physical, and aesthetic wellbeing and development of Australian youth; support Australia’s economic success and social cohesion; and develop an understanding of values, identity formation, and informed and responsible, active citizenship. Additionally, schools need to build the confidence and creativity of students so that they have a sense of self-awareness, self-worth, and personal identity to help them manage their mental, spiritual, physical, and emotional wellbeing (p. 6). These wellbeing goals are also affirmed by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, which include ‘Good Health and Wellbeing’ as one of their essential goals for nations (United Nations, 2021b).

The NSW Department of Education and Communities, Wellbeing Framework for Schools recognises that students’ wellbeing is enhanced when schools engage with and incorporate their communities’ support, knowledge, and contributions. This facilitates the students’ ability to “connect, succeed and thrive” (2015, p. 2). However, Diallo and Maizonniaux (2016) argue that despite inclusive policies that cater to students of diverse backgrounds, their practical application has not been fully achieved (p. 201). The challenge remains for educators to incorporate communities’ knowledge in relevant, engaging, and meaningful ways that connect with students’ diverse backgrounds and life beyond school (DeNobile & Hogan, 2014). To illustrate, Abdullah et al. (2015) found that the reason for establishing Muslim schools was that Muslim parents desire their children to maintain their Muslim faith (p. 509), which they must think is not possible in a public school. On the contrary, a fully supported public school SRE program could help students of faith backgrounds maintain their faith and promote social cohesion in a multicultural setting.

To address the challenge of catering for diversity in public schools, SRE is well-positioned to meet the needs of students from various faith backgrounds. SRE is a space where students’ particular faith can be taught through relatable concepts, examples, and stories, thereby creating significance and meaning for students. Additionally, SRE is an opportunity for students to form those connections with their faith communities to help them succeed and thrive in a multicultural setting.

Online Learning

The online SRE intervention study will be conducted asynchronously using online modules. Studies on online learning during the pandemic confirmed the findings of previous research. These studies included both synchronous and asynchronous learning. Effective online teaching strategies backed by empirical evidence will be used to inform the design of online SRE. For example, preparing more inclusive, active, and student-centred online classes helped overcome student barriers to learning (Mogavi et al., 2021). Moreover, studies found a need for catering to students’ preference for discussion and the attractiveness of educational material (Buchta et al., 2021) and for teacher training in quality pedagogical practices and student learning in new environments (McArthur, 2022). Previous studies showed that when quality pedagogical practices are applied, online learning environments may be equally effective for learners as onsite learning environments (Alexander & Boud, 2018; Driscoll et al., 2012). Student satisfaction resulted from teaching that promoted participant interaction, while knowledge outcomes resulted from quality course design and effective pedagogy (Rovai & Barnum, 2003). The above indicates that online SRE could be equally effective as onsite SRE if quality pedagogical practices are employed.

Online SRE—Equitable and Contemporary

In NSW, online education is provided only for students based on necessity or the principle of equity provision (Buckingham, 2017). This is for geographically isolated students or those restricted from education due to other approved circumstances (DETNSW, 2010, p. 17, as cited in Buckingham, 2017).Footnote 7 Considering the aforementioned wellbeing benefits, the principle of equity provision would suggest that students not receiving onsite SRE in NSW schools would be entitled to receive online SRE during school hours.

Online SRE is a contemporary pathway for adolescents to explore their beliefs and gain a sense of meaning and purpose in life. A 2019 Consensus Study Report,Footnote 8 titled The Promise of Adolescence: Realizing Opportunity for All Youth, highlighted that traditionally, religion was the context in which adolescents found meaning and purpose. However, because youth are becoming less likely to engage with religious-based institutions, comparable alternatives must be supported (p. 74). Online SRE could provide that alternative experience. In addition to wellbeing benefits, online SRE aligns with the Australian Curriculum’s intended outcome of using Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for effectively and confidently interacting with others in a knowledge-based economy.

Conclusion

Adolescent health and wellbeing should be prioritised by educators, parents, and society at large. Muslim youth can use and misuse religion respectively for or against their individual and societal wellbeing. The existing literature suggests that religious practice promotes health and wellbeing, builds character, contributes to social cohesion, and curbs radicalisation. As a precursor to religious understanding and practice, SRE is a promising pathway to such widespread benefits. SRE should be fully supported as an essential education program for students with faith backgrounds in public schools.

In secular Australia, people have the right to preserve their identities through teaching, learning, and practising their beliefs in private and public. NSW education legislation has commendably protected SRE. However, improving educational SRE policy and practices could maximise the return for adolescent and societal wellbeing. As Horvath and Donoghue (2015) remind us, “If we know something works to enhance student learning or wellbeing, then we should name it and do more of it” (para. 12). Online SRE would enable SRE providers to reach more students and contribute to their wellbeing in cost-effective, mass-scale, and efficient ways. If this can be achieved, then public schools would be impactfully contributing to a future of living well in a world worth living in for all.

Note: At the time of the final review of this chapter, the researcher is negotiating challenges (constrainers of practices) in conducting the research as planned. The NSW Department of Education received legal advice that although the SRE legislation is silent regarding online or in-person delivery of SRE, they ‘anticipate’ that SRE should be given in person. This interpretation is questionable based on the text and intent of the SRE legislation to protect SRE and ensure student access—especially in our digital age.