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General Issues Concerning Life Imprisonment

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On the Alternative Punishment to the Death Penalty in China

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Abstract

This chapter will explore issues surrounding life imprisonment. These include the notion of life imprisonment, i.e., what life imprisonment is. The notion of life imprisonment can refer to a penal measure imprisoning the inmate for a certain crime for the rest of the inmate’s life, or until he or she is allowed to be released by law. However, only in a case in which the convict is imprisoned for the rest of his or her life, such as occurs with life imprisonment without possibility of release (hereinafter: LWOR), can this be termed life imprisonment in the real sense of the term; in a case in which the convict is sentenced to life imprisonment but will be released after a certain time on parole or commutation or other arrangement, life imprisonment is, in fact, a kind of indefinite-term imprisonment or long-term imprisonment, and is, by its very nature, indeterminate. Following this, this chapter will explore the characteristics of life imprisonment, which include lengthy incarceration, and where its severity ranks only second to the death penalty, and when it is only used for the most serious crimes. Next, the chapter will analyse the forms of life imprisonment, which include life imprisonment without release and with the possibility of release, life imprisonment with work and without work, as well as mandatory life imprisonment and discretionary life imprisonment. This chapter will also explore the effects of life imprisonment, which include the effects on the inmate, on the victims and on the public. Following this, the chapter will analyse the life imprisonment system in China and various other countries, including some abolitionist European Union (hereinafter: EU) member states, in retentionist states such as Japan and Singapore, and also long term imprisonment in Norway and Portugal. This discussion will include the prevalence of life imprisonment (or long-term imprisonment) in the related states’ Criminal Codes (or Penal Codes), the conditions for passing a sentence of life imprisonment (or long-term imprisonment), and the termination mechanisms for life imprisonment (or long-term imprisonment). In addition, this chapter will focus on the international documents regarding life imprisonment.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, “Laws and Regulations of the People’s Republic of China: Criminal Law, China Legal Publishing House, 2011, 14. For the purpose of this paper, however, an indefinite term of imprisonment implies life imprisonment. For example, it imposes long-term determinate sentences that are referred to as “life imprisonment”. See The Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch of United Nations Office in Vienna, Life imprisonment, ST/CSDHA/24, 1994, 1.

  2. 2.

    See the Criminal Code of the Kingdom of Netherlands, Act of 3 March 1881, amended in 2012, Section 10 paragraph 3.

  3. 3.

    See the General Penal Code of Iceland, 1940 No. 19 (12 February), 1.44/2015 (took effect 2 July 2015), Article 100a.

  4. 4.

    See the Criminal Code of the Swiss Confederation of 21 December 1937 (Status as of 1 October 2016), Article 64, paragraph 1bis.

  5. 5.

    The Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch of United Nations Office at Vienna, Life Imprisonment, ST/CSHDA/24, Vienna, 1994, 1.

  6. 6.

    FRÎNTU Viorica-Mihaela, above no. 521, 94. According to the Criminal Code of the Republic of Romania, life imprisonment consists of deprivation of freedom for an indeterminate duration of time and shall be served according to the Law on the Service of Penalties. See the Criminal Code of the Republic of Romania, LAW # 286 of 17 July 2009, in force as of 12 November 2012, Article 56.

  7. 7.

    Life Imprisonment, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_imprisonment (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024).

  8. 8.

    See 张秀玲 [ZHANG Xiuling], 《无期徒刑研究》 [On Life Imprisonment], 吉林大学博士论文 [Ph.D. Dissertation, Jilin University], 2010, 7.

  9. 9.

    The Criminal Code of Republic of Austria (Strafgesetzbuch, StGB), as promulgated on 13 November 1998 (Federal Law Gazette I, p. 945, p. 3322), Section 57 (a) 1.

  10. 10.

    The Criminal Code of the Republic of Bulgaria, No. 26/02.04.1968, in force as of 01.05.1968, last amendment SG No. 32/27.04.2010, in force as of 28.05.2010, Article 38a.

  11. 11.

    KAFKARIS v. CYPRUS (Application no. 21906/04), 12 February 2008, available at:  http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{“itemid”:[“001-85019”]} (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024).

  12. 12.

    See the Criminal Code of Hungary, Act C of 2012, promulgated on 13 July 2012, Section 41 and 42.

  13. 13.

    Penal Code of the Republic of Lithuania, 26 September 2000 No. VIII-1968, Amended on 11th February 2010-No. XI-677, Article 51(3).

  14. 14.

    Life Imprisonment of Children in the European Union, available at: Child Rights International Network https://www.crin.org/en/home/campaigns/inhuman-sentencing/problem/life-imprisonment/life-imprisonment-children-europe. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024).

  15. 15.

    The Statutes of the Republic of Singapore: Penal Code (Chapter 224), Original Enactment: Ordinance 4 of 1871, Revised Edition 2008, Article 54.

  16. 16.

    See the Penal Code of Japan, Act No. 45 of April 24, 1907 (日本国刑法, 明治四十年四月二十四日法律第四十五), the latest version is amended by Act No. 54 of June 3, 2016 (最終改正: 平成二八年六月三日法律第五四号), Article 12 and 13, available at: http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/M40/M40HO045.html (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024).

  17. 17.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 46.

  18. 18.

    The Penal Code of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, (No. 15/1999/QH 10), Article 34.

  19. 19.

    The Indian Penal Code, 1860, ACT No. 45 of 1860 1*, Article A53 1* (4)(a).

  20. 20.

    The Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch of United Nations Office at Vienna, Life imprisonment, ST/CSDHA/24, 1994, 1.

  21. 21.

    Ibid., Article 45.

  22. 22.

    BERRY William W. III, above no. 381, 1053.

  23. 23.

    KLEINFELD Joshua, above no. 352, 949.

  24. 24.

    Ibid., 949–950.

  25. 25.

    The Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch of United Nations Office at Vienna, Life imprisonment, ST/CSDHA/24, 1994, 1.

  26. 26.

    A Matter of Life and Death: The Effect of Life-without-parole Statutes on Capital Punishment, Havard Law Review, 2006, Vol. 119, Issue 6, 1839.

  27. 27.

    United States Sentencing Commission, Life Sentences in the Federal System, available at: http://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/research-and-publications/research-projects-and-surveys/miscellaneous/20150226_Life_Sentences.pdf; see also United States Sentencing Commission, Sentencing Table, available at: http://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/guidelines-manual/2016/Sentencing_Table.pdf. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024). For example, according to the Sentencing Table of the United States Sentencing Commission, there are sentences ranging from 360 months to life imprisonment. According to “Life Sentences in the Federal System”, it is reported that, in fiscal year of 2013, there were 168 offenders sentenced to imprisonment for 470 months or longer; in 2008, there were 150, and in 2005, 232; while as of January 2015, there were 1983 offenders in the BOP system serving a sentence of incarceration of 470 months or longer. They accounted for 1.1% of all federal sentenced offenders.

  28. 28.

    Ibid., 10.

  29. 29.

    DOW David R., Life without Parole: A Different Death Penalty, available at: https://www.thenation.com/article/life-without-parole-different-death-penalty/. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024).

  30. 30.

    LÜDTKE Florian and İDIL Aydınoğlu, “Life Imprisonment (without Parole)”, Turkey’s Center for Prison Studies, 2015, 30, available at: http://www.tcps.org.tr/sites/default/files/kitaplar/Life%20Imprisonment_report%20march-3.pdf. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024). In 2012, there was a case, Vinter and Others v. United Kingdom, appealed to the European Court of Human Rights on the ground that the applicants were sentenced to life, and they could not be released; they complained imprisonment for life amounted to inhuman and degrading treatment as they had no hope of release. See Cases of Vinter and Others v. the United Kingdom, Applications nos. 66069/09 and 130/10 and 3896/10, Strasbourg, 17 January 2012.

  31. 31.

    European Commission for Democracy Through Law, Penal Code of Turkey, Opinion No. 831/2015, Strasbourg, 15 February 2016, Article 46.

  32. 32.

    Ibid. Article 47. However, parole is possibly granted to the offender who is given aggravated life imprisonment for most crimes, although for some special crimes, such as terrorism, parole is not granted, and the prisoner has to serve life imprisonment without possibility of parole. See LÜDTKE Florian and İDIL Aydınoğlu, “Life Imprisonment (without Parole)”, Turkey’s Center for Prison Studies, 2015, 30, available at: http://www.tcps.org.tr/sites/default/files/kitaplar/Life%20Imprisonment_report%20march-3.pdf. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024). For example, in 2014, in the case of Öcalan v. Turkey, the European Court of Human Rights held that the judgement of the Ankara State Security Court had been a violation of Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights because the applicant, Mr. Öcalan was given life imprisonment without any possibility of conditional release. See European Court of Human Rights, The Court Delivers its Chamber Judgment in the Case of Öcalan v. Turkey, Application nos. 24069/03, 197/04, 6201/06 and 10464/07. ECHR 077 (2014) 18.03.2014.

  33. 33.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 383(3).

  34. 34.

    Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code of Hungary, Section 43.

  35. 35.

    Penal Code of the Kingdom of Spain, Organic ACT 10/1995, Dated 23 November, 1995, as amended up to Law No. 4/2015 of April 27, 2015, Article 76.

  36. 36.

    The Criminal Code of the Republic of Korea, amended as of Jan 1st, 1998, Article 72.

  37. 37.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 57.

  38. 38.

    Ibid., Article 113.

  39. 39.

    Ibid., Article 141.

  40. 40.

    The Statutes of the Republic of Singapore: Penal Code, ordinance 4 of 1871, revised edition 2008, 30th November 2008, Article 121.

  41. 41.

    The German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch, StGB), as promulgated on 13 November 1998 (Federal Law Gazette I, p. 945, p. 3322), Section 43a.

  42. 42.

    The Criminal Code of Finland, 39/1889, amendments up to 766/2015 included, Section 10.

  43. 43.

    The Criminal Code of the Kingdom of Netherlands, Act of 3 March 1881, Amended in 2012, Section 59.

  44. 44.

    The Penal Code of Japan, Act No. 45 of April 24, 1907 (日本国刑法45号， 1907年4月24日), Article 77.

  45. 45.

    The Statutes of the Republic of Singapore: Penal Code, ordinance 4 of 1871, revised edition 2008, 30th November 2008, Article 121A.

  46. 46.

    Law No. 40/2009 Coll., Criminal Code of the Czech Republic, effective from 1 January 2010, Section 54(3).

  47. 47.

    The Swiss Criminal Code, of 21 December 1937 (Status as of 1 October 2016), Article 64, 1bis.

  48. 48.

    LERNER Craig S., Life without Parole as A Conflicted Punishment, Wake Forest Law Review, 2013, Vol.48, 1108.

  49. 49.

    LEBARON Genevieve, Rethinking Prison Labor: Social Discipline and the State in Historical Perspective, Working USA: The Journal of Labor & Society, 2012, Vol. 15, Issue 3, 331.

  50. 50.

    HANEY Lynne A., Working through Mass Incarceration: Gender and the Politics of Prison Labor from East to West, Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 2010, Vol. 36, No. 1, 92.

  51. 51.

    Criminal Code of the Swiss Confederation of 21 December 1937 (Status as of 1 October 2016), Article 81 paragraph 1.

  52. 52.

    The Penal Code of Japan, Act No. 45 of April 24, 1907 (日本国刑法45号， 1907年4月24日), Articles 12 and 13.

  53. 53.

    Ibid., Article 10.

  54. 54.

    The Criminal Justice Act 2003 of the United Kingdom, Schedule 21 (1).

  55. 55.

    Ibid., Schedule 21 (4).

  56. 56.

    The Criminal Code of Turkey (2011) Law No. 5237 of September 26, 2004, as amended to Law No. 6217 of March 31, 2011, Article 302.

  57. 57.

    LAW # 286 of 17 July 2009 of the Criminal Code of Romania, Article 189.

  58. 58.

    张秀玲 [ZHANG Xiuling], above no. 558, 18.

  59. 59.

    Ibid.

  60. 60.

    Ibid.

  61. 61.

    ROCHELEAU Ann Marie, An Empirical Exploration of the ‘Pains of Imprisonment’ and the Level of Prison Misconduct and Violence, Criminal Justice Review, 2013, Vol. 38, No. 3, 355.

  62. 62.

    See HULLEY Susie, CREWE Ben and WRIGHT Serena, Re-examining the Problems of Long-term Imprisonment, British Journal of Criminology, 2016, Vol. 56, Issue 4, 2.

  63. 63.

    See SCHNITTKER Jason, and MASSOGLIA Michael, A Sociocognitive Approach to Studying the Effects of Incarceration, Wisconsin Law Review, 2015, Vol. 2015, Issue 2, 349.

  64. 64.

    See ROCHELEAU Ann Marie, above no. 611, 365.

  65. 65.

    SCHNITTKER Jason, and MASSOGLIA Michael, above no. 613, 357.

  66. 66.

    符少剑, 姚乾坤, 等 [FU Shaojian, YAO Qiankun etc.], 《1120 例监狱服刑人员心理健康与人格特征分析》 [Investigation on Mental Health and Personality traits of 1 120 Prisoners in Hainan Province], 现代预防医学 [Modern Preventive Medicine] 2012, Vol. 39, No. 23, 6194.

  67. 67.

    See SCHNITTKER Jason, and MASSOGLIA Michael, above no. 613, 359. In this paper, Jason notes that, for the inmate, perhaps the most persistent challenge is how to deal with the stigma of incarceration itself.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., 350.

  69. 69.

    MURRAY Joseph, The Effects of Imprisonment on Families and Children of Prisoners, “The Effects of Imprisonment”, Edited by LIEBLING Alison and MARUNA Shadd, Routledge, Oxford, 2011, 442.

  70. 70.

    Ibid., 444.

  71. 71.

    CALSEYDE Philippe P.F.M. van de, ZEELENBERG Gideon Keren Marcel, The Insured Victim Effect: When and Why Compensating Harm Decreases Punishment Recommendations, Judgement and Decision Making, 2013, Vol. 8, No. 2, 162.

  72. 72.

    WILLIAMS Kenneth, Why and How the Supreme Court Should End the Death Penalty, University of San Francisco Law Review, 2017, Vol. 51, Issue 2, 283.

  73. 73.

    TIBBS Donald F., Towards an Abolition Democracy: The Death Penalty, Circa 2015, Widener Law Journal, 2016, Vol. 25, Issue 1, 89.

  74. 74.

    In this case, Tang Hui was the mother of the victim, an 11-year old girl, who was forced to engage in prostitution by the perpetrators, Zhou Junhui, Qin Xing and others. Zhou and Qin were sentenced to death at the first trial and at the retrial, and at the second and final retrial they were sentenced to life imprisonment. See generally, 唐惠 [TANG Hui], available at: http://baike.so.com/doc/1050580-1111313.html; and 柴会群 [CHAI Huiqun], 《什么造就了唐慧》 [What made Tang Hui?], available at: http://www.360doc.com/content/14/0617/10/4089344_387392854.shtml. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024); See 周军辉，秦星 [ZHOU Junhui and QIN xing] (2010) 永中刑一初字第55号 [2010] Yong the First Criminal Court First Trial. No. 55; (2012) 湘高法刑三终字第31号 [2012] Xiang High Court Third Criminal Trial. No. 31; (2014) 湘高法刑重字第5号 [2014] Xiang High Court Criminal Retrial. No. 5]. The judgement of this case can be found on the “China Judgements Online” website, http://wenshu.court.gov.cn/content/content?DocID=3a471b1c-dfa8-4ea0-b53f-edf0a40d5ac5&KeyWord=%E5%91%A8%E5%86%9B%E8%BE%89%7C%E5%91%A8%E5%86%9B%E8%BE%89%EF%BC%8C%E7%A7%A6%E6%98%9F. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024).

  75. 75.

    In this case, the offender, Sun Weiming, was initially sentenced to immediate execution for the crime of using other dangerous means when inflicting serious injury on 1 person and death on 4 persons, but this was reduced to life imprisonment at the second trial. See 孙伟铭 [SUN Weiming] (2009) 成刑初字第158号 [2009] Cheng the First Criminal Court First Trial. No. 158; (2009) 川刑终字第690号 [2009] Chuan the Criminal Court the Second Trial. No. 690].

  76. 76.

    《刑法最新罪名一览表》 [Chart Showing the New Crimes in the Criminal Law], above no. 125.

  77. 77.

    These 46 crimes are punishable by death; life imprisonment for these crimes is a possible option to capital punishment, and it is even the lightest punishment for some crimes, such as kidnapping (Article 239(2). See 《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015.

  78. 78.

    These crimes include crimes of producing or selling food that is not up to safety standards (Article 143), producing fake pesticides, fake animal pharmaceuticals or fake chemical fertilizers or selling pesticides, animal pharmaceuticals, chemical fertilizers or seeds (Article 147), forming or using superstitious sects or secret societies or ‘unusual’ religious organizations or using superstition to undermine the implementation of laws and administrative rules and regulations (Article 300), making arrangements for another person to illegally cross the national border (Article 318), illegally possessing narcotic drug (Article 348). See 《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015.

  79. 79.

    This is the crime of smuggling, trafficking in, transporting or manufacturing narcotic drugs, provided by Article 347(1). See 《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015,

  80. 80.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015,.

  81. 81.

    These articles include Articles 48, 49, 50, 51 in Session 5 of Chapter III of the General Provisions of the Criminal Law of People Republic of China.

  82. 82.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 17.

  83. 83.

    In judicial practice, the SPC has always made a relevant judicial interpretation of this provision, based on the judicial enquiry of the Ji Lin High People’s Court regarding the question of whether life imprisonment may be imposed on a criminal who is younger than 16 years old but had reached the age of 14 years when he or she committed a very serious crime. In this judicial interpretation, the SPC said that life imprisonment may be imposed on them in accordance with the Articles 44 and 14(2) of the Criminal Law 1979, but it also should be applied in the light of Article 14(3), providing that a lighter or mitigated punishment shall be given an offender who is older than 14 but younger than 16, and the applicable conditions of life imprisonment for them shall be stricter than those for others. However, this judicial decision was repealed in 2013. See 《最高人民法院关于已满14岁 不满16岁的人所犯罪行特别严重能否判处无期徒刑问题的电话答复》 [Answer by Phone from the SPC on the Issue of Whether a Person who has Reached the Age of 14 but not the Age of 18 Commits Very Serious Crimes], 17 April 1991, available at: http://www.law-lib.com/law/law_view.asp?id=53045. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024); and 《最高人民法院关于废止1980年1月1日至1997年6月30日期间发布的部分司法解释和司法解释性质文件 (第九批) 的决定》 [SPC’s Decision on Repealing the Partial Judicial Interpretations and Judicial Interpretative Documents (The Ninth Batch) Made in the period from 1 January 1980 to 30 June 1997], 法释 〔2013〕2号 [No. 2 Legal Interpretation (2013)].

  84. 84.

    Article 17-1 of the Criminal Law provides that “A person attaining the age of 75 may be given a lighter or mitigated penalty if he commits an intentional crime; or shall be given a lighter or mitigated penalty if he commits a crime of negligence.”.

  85. 85.

    Criminal Code of the Republic of Romania, LAW # 286 of 17 July 2009, Article 57.

  86. 86.

    FRÎNTU Viorica-Mihaela, above no. 521, 97. According to Article 113 of Criminal Code of the Republic of Romania, a juvenile includes a person who is younger than 16 years old.

  87. 87.

    Criminal Code of Hungary, ACT C of 2012, Section 41.

  88. 88.

    See 《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 263.

  89. 89.

    Ibid.

  90. 90.

    Ibid., Article 127(2).

  91. 91.

    In the Specific Provisions of the Criminal Law, only the crimes of manufacturing or selling counterfeit or inferior products, which are punishable by life imprisonment, are stipulated explicitly with the amount of property relating to the crime, namely, “if the amount of earnings from sales is more than 2 million Yuan, he shall be sentenced to a fixed-term imprisonment of 15 years or life imprisonment” (see Criminal Law of PRC 1997, Article 140); most of the other provisions use the phrase “the amount involved is large or especially large” as the applicable condition for life imprisonment; see, for example, Articles 152(3),170, 178, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197, 200, 204, 206, 207, 224, 264, 267, 382(3), 384. Based on the specific crime, the SPC makes different judicial interpretations of these vague terms. In addition, the crime of illegal drug-possessing is provided with the term “quantity” as the condition for sentencing to life imprisonment, namely, illegally possessing not less than 1 kg of opium, or not less than 50 g’ heroin or methyl-aniline of, or any other large quantities of narcotic drugs”. See 《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 384.

  92. 92.

    See 《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 236(3); and Articles 115, 141, 144, 147, 234, 263, 390, 421, 422, 423 and 424.

  93. 93.

    See ibid., Article 263.

  94. 94.

    Ibid., Article 234(2).

  95. 95.

    Ibid., Article 247(2).

  96. 96.

    Ibid., Article 240; and Articles 103, 104, 105, 170, 317, 318, 328 and 347.

  97. 97.

    BERRY William W. III, above no. 381, 1054.

  98. 98.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 78.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., Article 78.

  100. 100.

    《最高人民法院关于办理减刑、 假释案件具体应用法律问题的规定》[Supreme People Court’s Provisions on Several Legal Issues concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Commutation and Parole Cases] 法释 (2016)23号 [Legal Interpretation No. 23, 2016], Articles 7and 8.

  101. 101.

    Ibid., Article 7.

  102. 102.

    See 《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 14 March 1997, Article 78, and 《最高人民法院关于办理减刑、假释案件具体应用法律问题的规定》 [Supreme People Court’s Provisions on Several Legal Issues concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Commutation and Parole Cases], 法释 (1997)6号 [Legal Interpretation No. 6, 1997], Article 6.

  103. 103.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 14 March 1997, Article 78(2).

  104. 104.

    See 《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 78(2) and 《最高人民法院关于办理减刑、假释案件具体应用法律问题的规定》 [Supreme People Court’s Provisions on Several Legal Issues concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Commutation and Parole Cases], above no. 650, Article 8.

  105. 105.

    《最高人民法院关于办理减刑、假释案件具体应用法律问题的规定》 [Supreme People Court’s Provisions on Several Legal Issues concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Commutation and Parole Cases], above no. 650, Article 6.

  106. 106.

    《中共中央政法委关于严格规范减刑、假释、暂予监外执行切实防止司法腐败的意见》 [The Opinions of the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission of the Communist Party of China (CPLACCPC) on Effectively Preventing Judicial Corruption by Strictly Regulating the Commutation, Parole and the Temporary Service of Sentences Outside Prison] (People’s Republic of China) Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission of the Communist Party of China 中政委 （2014）5号 [No. 5, 2014, Central Political Commission], Article 1(3).

  107. 107.

    《最高人民法院关于办理减刑、假释案件具体应用法律问题的规定》 [Supreme People Court’s Provisions on Several Legal Issues concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Commutation and Parole Cases], above no. 650, Article 9.

  108. 108.

    Ibid.

  109. 109.

    See 《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 14 March 1997, Article 50; and 《最高人民法院关于办理减刑、假释案件具体应用法律问题的规定》 [Supreme People Court’s Provisions on Several Legal Issues concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Commutation and Parole Cases], above no. 650, Article 9.

  110. 110.

    Ibid.

  111. 111.

    《最高人民法院关于办理减刑、假释案件具体应用法律问题的规定》 [Supreme People Court’s Provisions on Several Legal Issues concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Commutation and Parole Cases], above no. 650, Article 9.

  112. 112.

    See Ibid., Article 10, and see also 《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 50(2).

  113. 113.

    《最高人民法院关于办理减刑、假释案件具体应用法律问题的规定》 [Supreme People Court’s Provisions on Several Legal Issues concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Commutation and Parole Cases], above no. 650, Articles 13 and 14.

  114. 114.

    徐静村 [XU Jingcun], 《减刑、假释制度改革若干问题研究》 [On Several Issues on the Reform of Commutation of Punishment and Parole], 法治研究 [Research on the Rule of Law] 2010, No. 2, 3.

  115. 115.

    刘强 [LIU Qiang], 《在我国建立以 “假释为主、减刑为辅”的罪犯出狱新模式》 [Establishing the New Model of Criminals Being Released from Prison - ‘Parole Principally, Reduction of Penalty Secondly’ - in China], 法学杂志 [Law Science Magazine] 2012, No. 1, 45.

  116. 116.

    柳原 [LIU Yuan], 《扩大假释、缩小减刑的实证研究》 [Empirical Research on Expanding the Application of Parole and Limiting Commutation], 中国司法 [Justice of China] 2014, No. 11, 67.

  117. 117.

    《2014年1-9月人民法院办理减刑假释案件情况》 [Report on the Commutation and Parole Cases Handled by the People’s Court from January to September 2014], available at: 中华人民共和国最高人民法院 [Supreme People’s Court of People’s Republic of China] http://www.court.gov.cn/fabu-xiangqing-14014.html (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024).

  118. 118.

    See generally, 郎胜 [LANG Sheng], 《 < 刑法修正案（八） > 解读》 [Interpreting “the Eighth Amendment to the Criminal Law], 国家检察官学院学报 [Journal of the National Prosecutors College] 2011, No. 2, 157.

  119. 119.

    See 《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 14 March 1997, Article 81.

  120. 120.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 81.

  121. 121.

    《最高人民法院关于办理减刑、假释案件具体应用法律问题的规定》 [Supreme People Court’s Provisions on Several Legal Issues concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Commutation and Parole Cases], above no. 650, Article 15.

  122. 122.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 81(3).

  123. 123.

    《最高人民法院关于办理减刑、假释案件具体应用法律问题的规定》 [Supreme People Court’s Provisions on Several Legal Issues concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Commutation and Parole Cases], above no. 650, Article 17.

  124. 124.

    柳忠卫 [Liu Zhongwei], 《对假释适用的例外性规定和禁止性规定的理性分析》 [Rational Analysis of the Exception Stipulations and Prohibiting Stipulations of Parole Application], 政法论丛 [Journal of Political Science and Law] 2006, No. 1, 58.

  125. 125.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 81(2).

  126. 126.

    Ibid., Article 83.

  127. 127.

    Ibid., Article 84.

  128. 128.

    Ibid., Article 85.

  129. 129.

    《中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)》 [The Eighth Amendment to the Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], above no. 1, Article 17.

  130. 130.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 2015, Article 86.

  131. 131.

    《中华人民共和国刑法修正案(九)》 [The Ninth Amendment to the Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], above no. 6, Article 44(4).

  132. 132.

    《最高人民法院、最高人民检察院关于办理贪污贿赂刑事案件适用法律若干问题的解释》 [The Supreme People’s Court’s and Supreme People’s Procuratorate’s Interpretation of Several Legal Issues Concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Criminal Cases of Embezzlement and Bribery], 法释 (2016) 9号 [Legal Interpretation No. 9, 2016]), Articles 3 and 4.

  133. 133.

    《 “两高”发布办理贪污贿赂刑事案件司法解释》[Interpretations Concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Criminal Cases of Embezzlement and Bribery Issued by the ‘Two Supreme Judicial Authorities (Supreme People’s Court and Supreme Peoples’ Procuratorate)’]， available at: 中华人民共和国最高人民法院 [Supreme People’s Court of People’s Republic of China], available at: http://www.court.gov.cn/zixun-xiangqing-19562.html. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024).

  134. 134.

    《 “巨贪”将把牢底坐穿？——聚焦刑法修正案（九）草案：对重特大贪污犯罪增设 “终身监禁”》 [‘Will the ‘Corrupt Official’ Continue to Rot in Detention? Focus on the Ninth Amendment to the Criminal Law (Draft): Stipulating Life Imprisonment without Possibility of Release for Serious Crimes of Embezzlement and Bribery], available at: 中央政府网 [Central People’s Government] http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2015-08/25/content_2919673.htm. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024).

  135. 135.

    These three convicts are Bai Enpei, Wei Pengyuan and Yu Tieyi. All of them are sentenced to the death penalty with reprieve for having committed corruption crimes, and are not allowed to be granted commutation and parole after the death penalty with reprieve is reduced to life imprisonment. See 《白恩培等三巨贪被判处终身监禁，释放出什么信号？》 [Such Bai Enpei as Three Arch Corrupt Officials Are Sentenced to Life.

    Imprisonment without Release, what Kinds of Signals Are Released？], available at: 星翰新闻网 [Xinghan News] http://www.szxinghan.cn/Social/13972494.html. (Last visited: March 24th, 2017).

  136. 136.

    《最高检万春主任等专家解读贪污贿赂司法解释》 [The Chief Editor of the Research Office of the Legal Policies of the Supreme People’s Procurator of the P.R.C, Wan Chun and Other Experts Explaining the Judicial Interpretations of the Anti-crime of Embezzlement and Bribery], available at: 今日头条 [Daily News] http://www.toutiao.com/i6288100038123979265/. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024).

  137. 137.

    Ibid.

  138. 138.

    阮齐林[RUAN Qilin], 《依法从严惩治贪污贿赂犯罪——解读  < 关于办理贪污贿赂刑事案件适用法 律若干问题的解释 >》 [Severely Punishing Crimes of Embezzlement and Bribery by the Law: Analyzing ‘Interpretation on Several Legal Issues Concerning the Specific Application of the Law in Handling Criminal Cases of Embezzlement and Bribery’], available at: 法制网[Legal Net] http://www.legaldaily.com.cn/index/content/2016-04/18/content_6591201.htm?node=20908. (Last visited: January 22nd, 2024).

  139. 139.

    See the German Criminal Code, promulgated on 13 November 1998, Federal Law Gazette.

    [Bundesgesetzblatt] I p. 3322, last amended by Article 1 of the Law of 24 September 2013, Federal Law Gazette I p. 3671 and with the text of Article 6(18) of the Law of 10 October 2013, Federal Law Gazette I p 3799. Available at: https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_stgb/. (Last visited: January 23rd, 2024). These provisions include Section 80 (preparation of a war of aggression), Section 81 (high treason against the Federation), Section 94 (treason), Section 100 (engaging in relations that endanger peace), Section 176 (child abuse causing death), Section 176a (aggravated child abuse causing death), Section 178 (sexual assault by use of force or threat of force and rape causing death), Section 211 (murder under specific aggravating circumstances), Section 212 (murder), Section 239a (abduction for the purpose of blackmail), Section 251 (robbery causing death), Section 306 (arson), Section 306a (aggravated arson), Section 306b (additionally aggravated arson), Section 307 (causing a nuclear explosion), Section 308 (causing an explosion), Section 309 (misuse of ionising radiation), Section 316a (attacking a driver for the purpose of committing a robbery), Section 316c (attacking air and maritime traffic).

  140. 140.

    These provisions include Section 306c (arson causing death), Section 307 (causing a nuclear explosion), Section 308 (causing an explosion), Section 309 (misuse of ionising radiation), Section 316a (attacking a driver for the purpose of committing a robbery), Section 316c.

  141. 141.

    These provisions include Section 176 (child abuse causing death), Section 176a (aggravated child abuse causing death), Section 178 (sexual assault by use of force or threat of force and rape causing death).

  142. 142.

    These 316 provisions are specially referred to in the provisions from Section 142 to Section 457. These 23 provisions include Section 142 (genocide), Section 143 (crimes against humanity), Section 144 (apartheid), Section 148 (assault against a war emissary), Section 149 (assault on protected persons), Section 155 (use of weapons prohibited by international convention), Section 160 (homicide), Section 176 (drug trafficking), Section 177 (offering or supplying narcotic drugs to a person under the age of eighteen years), Section 179, Section 190 (kidnapping), Section 192 (trafficking in human beings), Section 254 (attempting to overturn a constitutional order by force), Section 257 (destruction), Section 258 (high treason), Section 260 (aid and comfort), Section 284 (prison riot), Section 314 (acts of terrorism), Section 320 (unlawful seizure of a vehicle), Section 322 (public endangerment), Section 326 (criminal offenses with weapons prohibited by international convention), Section 442 (mutiny), and Section 445 (assault on a superior officer or representative of public authority). See Act C of 2012 of the Criminal Code of Hungary, promulgated on 13 July 2012.

  143. 143.

    These 32 provisions include Sections 92, 93, 94, 95, 95a, 97, 97a, 98a, 102 (all of these nine sections provide for serious offenses against the security of the state), 108 and 114a (these two provisions relate to serious offenses against royal dignity), 115, 117, 120a and 121 (these four provisions relate to serious offenses against heads of friendly nations and other internationally protected persons), 140a (this provision relates to serious offenses against public order), 157, 161 quarter, 164, 166, 168, 170, 174 and 176a (these eight provisions relate to serious offenses endangering the general safety of persons or property), 282a, 282b, 288, 288a and 289 (these five provisions relate to serious offenses against personal liberty), 304a (this provision relates to assault), 385a and 415a (these two provisions relate to serious offenses against shipping and aviation). See Act of 3 March 1881, the Criminal Code of Netherlands.

  144. 144.

    These stipulations include Articles 189 (aggravated murder), 396 (treason by helping the enemy), 398 (high treason), 401 (attack that jeopardizes national security), 402 (attack against a community), 403 (diversionary acts), 408 (offenses against representatives who have international immunity), 421 (capitulation), 422 (leaving the battlefield), 438 (genocide), 439 (crimes against humanity), and 440 (war crimes against persons). See LAW # 286 of 7 July 2009 of the Criminal Code of Romania, Amending Acts: #M1, Law # 27/ 2012; M2: Law #63/2012; M3: Law # 187/2012, enters into force on February 1st, 2014.

  145. 145.

    See Federal Law Gazette [Bundesgesetzblatt] I p. 3322, last amended by Article 1 of the Law of 24 September 2013, Federal Law Gazette I p. 3671 and with the text of Article 6(18) of the Law of 10 October 2013, Federal Law Gazette I p 3799, Section 80.

  146. 146.

    Ibid., Sections 81 and 211.

  147. 147.

    These stipulations include Sections 92, 93, 94, 95, 95a, 97, 97a, 98a, 102, 108, 114, 120a, 140a, 176a, 288, 288a, 289, 304a, and 415a. See Act of 3 March 1881, the Criminal Code of Netherlands.

  148. 148.

    These provisions include Sections 142, 143, 148, 149, 155, 254, 260, and 314. See Act C of 2012 of the Criminal Code of Hungary, promulgated on 13 July 2012. Considering that Section 149 does not only provide for life imprisonment for action crimes, but also provides that life imprisonment can be applied to an offender under certain legally-prescribed circumstances according to the law, here I count 24 provisions, but in fact, there are only 23.

  149. 149.

    These provisions include Articles 396, 398, 401, 402, 403, 408, 421 and 422. See LAW # 286 of 7 July 2009 of the Criminal Code of Romania.

  150. 150.

    These provisions include 94, 100, 176, 176b, 177, 212, 239a, 251, 306, 306a, 306b, 307, 308, 309 and 316. See Federal Law Gazette [Bundesgesetzblatt] I p. 3322, last amended by Article 1 of the Law of 24 September 2013, Federal Law Gazette I p. 3671 and with the text of Article 6(18) of the Law of 10 October 2013, Federal Law Gazette I p 3799.

  151. 151.

    These provisions include Sections 144, 149, 160, 176, 177, 179, 190, 192, 257, 258, 284, 320, 322, 326, 442 and 445. See Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code of Hungary.

  152. 152.

    These provisions include Sections 115, 117, 157, 161 quarter, 164, 166, 168, 170, 174, 282a, 282b and 385. See Act of 3 March 1881, The Criminal Code of Netherlands.

  153. 153.

    These provisions include Articles 189, 438, 439 and 440. See LAW # 286 of 7 July 2009 of the Criminal Code of Romania.

  154. 154.

    VEGA Connie de la, SOLTER Amanda, KWON Soo-Ryun and ISAAC Dana Marie, Cruel and Unusual: U.S. Sentencing Practices in a Global Context, University of San Francisco (USF) School of Law’s Center for Law and Global Justice, May, 2012, 21. Available at https://www.cpcjalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Cruel-And-Unusual.pdf (Last visited: January 23rd, 2024).

  155. 155.

    Ibid., 25. See also GALLIANI Davide, The Reducible Life Imprisonment Standard from a Worldwide and European Perspective, Global Jurist 2016, Vol. 16, Issue 1, 84. These 24 countries include: Albania, Argentina, Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Burundi, China, Comoros, Cuba, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Hungary, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Liberia, Lithuania, Malta, Marshall Islands, Namibia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Palau, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Slovakia, Solomon Islands, Sweden, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and Zimbabwe. These 21 countries for which the Report could not locate statutory or case law text confirming whether life imprisonment without parole exists or not include: Barbados, Bhutan, Dominica, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Grenada, Guyana, Indonesia, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saudi Arabia, South Sudan, Suriname, Syria, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkmenistan, and the United Arab Emirates.

  156. 156.

    The European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) Report about the Prison in Netherlands, Council of Europe, CPT/Inf (2017)1, Strasbourg, 19 January 2017, 31. Available at https://rm.coe.int/16806ebb7c. (Last visited: January 23rd, 2024).

  157. 157.

    Case of Murray v. The Netherlands, (Application no. 10511/10), Judgment, Strasbourg, 26 April 2016.

  158. 158.

    Ibid., 71.

  159. 159.

    The European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) Report about the Prison in Netherlands, Council of Europe, CPT/Inf (2017)1, Strasbourg, 19 January 2017, 31.

  160. 160.

    The Constitution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands 2008, Article 122.

  161. 161.

    See also The European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) Report about the Prison in Netherlands, Council of Europe, CPT/Inf (2017)1, Strasbourg, 19 January 2017, 31.

  162. 162.

    Ibid.

  163. 163.

    Ibid.

  164. 164.

    Act C of 2012 in the Criminal Code of Hungary, Section 42. See generally, GÁL ISTVÁN László, SZŰCS András, A Büntetések [The Penalties], in Új Btk. Kommentár: 2. Kötet [Commentary on New Criminal Code: Vol. 2], Általános rész [General Part], Edited by POLT Péter, Budapest, 2013, 9–69; JUHÁSZ Zsuzsanna, A Büntetések [The penalties], Kommentár a Büntető Törvénykönyvhöz [Commentary on Criminal Code], edited by KARSAI Krisztina, Budapest, 2013, 109–163; Madai Sándor: A Társadalmi Tulajdon Fokozottabb Büntetőjogi Védelme Egykor és Most [Increased Criminal Protection of Social Property Once and Now], Békés Imre emlékkötet [Remembering essays for Imre Békés], edited by GELLÉRR Balázs, CSIGE Zoltán, Budapest, 2013, 143–178; KARSAI Krisztina and ZSOLT Szomora, Criminal Law in Hungary, Kluwer Law International BV, the Netherlands, 2010, 28.

  165. 165.

    Ibid., Section 43. See generally, GÁL ISTVÁN László, László, Feltételes szabadságra bocsátás az életfogytig tartó szabadságvesztésből 42–45. § [Release on Parole from Life Imprisonment 42–45. §], A Büntető Törvénykönyvről szóló 2012. évi C. törvény nagykommentárja [Great Commentary on the Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code], edited by POLT Péter, MISKOLCZI Barna, TÖRÖK Tímea, GASZ Péter, Budapest, 2016, 207–213.

  166. 166.

    Ibid., Section 44 (1). These crimes include: (a) genocide [Subsection (1) of Section 142]; (b) crimes against humanity [Subsection (1) of Section 143]; (c) apartheid [Subsections (1) and (3) of Section 144]; (d) aggravated cases of assault against a war emissary [Subsection (2) of Section 148]; (e) assault on protected persons [Subsections (1)-(2) of Section 149]; (f) use of a weapon prohibited by international convention [Subsection (1) of Section 155]; (g) other war crimes (Section 158); (h) aggravated cases of homicide [Subsection (2) of Section 160]; (i) aggravated cases of kidnapping [Subsections (3)-(4) of Section 190]; (j) aggravated cases of trafficking in human beings [Subsection (6) of Section 192]; (k) attempt to overturn the constitutional order by force [Subsection (1) of Section 254]; (l) aggravated cases of destruction [Subsection (2) of Section 257]; (m) aggravated cases of prison riot [Subsection (4) of Section 284]; (n) acts of terrorism [Subsection (1) of Section 314]; (o) aggravated cases of unlawful seizure of a vehicle [Subsection (2) of Section 320]; (p) aggravated cases of public endangerment [Subsection (3) of Section 322]; (q) aggravated cases of mutiny [Subsection (4) of Section 442]; (r) aggravated cases of assault on a superior officer or representative of public authority [Subsection (5) of Section 445]. See generally, MADAI Sándor, above no. 714, 143–178.

  167. 167.

    See Törköly v Hungary, application no. 4413/06, ECtHR (Second Section), Decision of 05.04. 2011. Available at: http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{“itemid”:[“001-104602”]} (Last visited: January 23rd, 2024).

  168. 168.

    Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code of Hungary, Section 44 (2).

  169. 169.

    See László Magyar v. Hungary, application no. 73593/10, 20 May, 2014. Available at: http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng-press#{“itemid”:[“003-4764328-5797216”]} (Last visited: January 23rd, 2024).

  170. 170.

    NAGY Anita, Release from Prison and Probation in Hungary, Juridical Current, 2016, Vol. 19, Issue 3, 65.

  171. 171.

    Ibid.

  172. 172.

    See PETRA Bárd, The Hungarian Life Imprisonment Regime in front of Apex Courts I., available at: Blogsite of the Institute for Legal Studies http://jog.tk.mta.hu/en/blog/2015/06/the-hungarian-life-imprisonment (Last visited: June 27th, 2017). See generally, MADAI Sándor, above no. 714,143–178.

  173. 173.

    Ibid. See generally, GÁL ISTVÁN László, Szűcs András, above no. 714, 9–69; MADAI Sándor, above no. 714, 143–178.

  174. 174.

    Ibid. See also NAGY Anita, Pardon System in Hungary and European Human Rights Jurisprudence, The Lawyer Quarterly, 2016, Vol.3, Issue.3, 181–188; See generally, GÁL ISTVÁN László, above no. 715, 207–213; MADAI Sándor, above no. 714, 143–178..

  175. 175.

    NAGY Anita, Presidential Pardon and the European Court of Human Rights, CASOPIS POLICAJNA TEORIA A PRAX, 2016, Issue.1, 69..

  176. 176.

    T.P. and A.T. v. Hungary, application nos. 37871/14 and 73986/14. Available at: http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng-press#{“itemid”:[“003-5600221-7075341”]} (Last visited: January 23rd, 2024).

  177. 177.

    See Federal Law Gazette [Bundesgesetzblatt] I p. 3322, last amended by Article 1 of the Law of 24 September 2013, Federal Law Gazette I p. 3671 and with the text of Article 6(18) of the Law of 10 October 2013, Federal Law Gazette I p 3799, Sections 57a (1), 57(1).

  178. 178.

    Ibid., Section 57a (1) 2nd sentence.

  179. 179.

    Ibid., Section 57(1) 2nd sentence.

  180. 180.

    Ibid., Section 57 (6).

  181. 181.

    Ibid., Section 58.

  182. 182.

    Streicher v. Germany, application no. 40384/04, 2009. Available at: http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{“itemid”:[“001-91620”]} (Last visited: January 23rd, 2024).

  183. 183.

    Meixner v. Germany, application no. 26958/07, 2009. Available at: http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{“itemid”:[“003-2938799-3232312”]} (Last visited: June 27th, 2017).

  184. 184.

    LAW # 286 of 7 July 2009 of the Criminal Code of Romania, Article 57.

  185. 185.

    Ibid., Article 58.

  186. 186.

    Ibid., Article 59.

  187. 187.

    Penal Code of Japan, Act No. 45 of April 24, 1907 (日本国刑法45号, 1907年4月24日). These 14 provisions include: Articles 77(1) (insurrection), 82 (assistance to the enemy), 108 (arson of inhabited buildings), 119 (damage to inhabited buildings by flood), 126 (overturning of trains), 146 (pollution of water supplied with poisonous materials and causing death thereby), 148 (counterfeiting of currency or issuing counterfeit currency), 154 (counterfeiting of imperial or state documents), 181 (forcible indecency causing death or injury), 199 (homicide), 225-2 (kidnapping for ransom), 240 (robbery causing death or injury), and 241 (rape at the scene of a robbery, causing death thereby).

  188. 188.

    These provisions include Articles 77, 82, 108, 119, 126, 146, 199 and 241.See Ibid.

  189. 189.

    See the Statutes of the Republic of Singapore: Penal Code (chapter 224), Original Enactment: Ordinance 4 of 1871, the revised edition of the Laws Act (Chapter 275), in force from 1/4/2015. These provisions include: Section 121 (waging or attempting to wage war or abetting the waging of war against the Government), 121A (offenses against the President’s person), 121B (offenses against authority), 122 (collecting arms, etc., with the intention of waging war against the Government), 124 (assaulting the President, etc., with intent to compel or restrain the exercise of any lawful power), 125 (waging war against any power in alliance or at peace with Singapore), 128 (a public servant voluntarily allowing a prisoner of state or war in his custody to escape), 130 (aiding the escape of, rescuing, or harbouring such a prisoner), 130B (piracy according to the law of nations), 130E (genocide), 131 (abetting mutiny, or attempting to seduce an officer or a serviceman from his duty), 132 (abetment of mutiny, if mutiny is committed in consequence thereof), 194 (giving or fabricating false evidence with intent to procure conviction of a capital offense), 195 (giving or fabricating false evidence with intent to procure conviction of an offense punishable with imprisonment), 222 (intentional omission on the part of a public servant bound by law to apprehend a person under sentence of a court of justice), 225 (resistance or obstruction to the lawful apprehension of another person), 302 (murder), 304 (culpable homicide not amounting to murder), 305 (abetment of suicide of a child or insane person), 307 (attempt to murder), 311 (infanticide), 313 (causing miscarriage without a woman’s consent), 314 (death caused by an act done with intent to cause miscarriage), 326 (voluntarily causing grievous hurt by dangerous weapons or means), 329 (voluntarily causing grievous hurt to extort property, or to constrain someone to commit an illegal act), 364 (kidnapping or abducting in order to murder), 371 (habitual dealing in slaves), 396 (gang-robbery with murder), 400 (belonging to a gang of robbers), 409 (criminal breach of trust by a public servant, or by a banker, merchant, or agent), 412 (dishonestly receiving property stolen in the commission of a gang-robbery), 430A (mischief affecting a railway engine, train, etc.), 436 (mischief by fire or explosive substance with intent to destroy a house, etc.), 438 (mischief described in Section 437 when committed by fire or any explosive substance), and 449 (house-trespass in order to commit an offense punishable with death).

  190. 190.

    The Penal Code of Japan, Act No. 45 of April 24, 1907 (日本国刑法45号, 1907年4月24日), Article 77(1.ii).

  191. 191.

    See Ibid., Article 240, the first sentence of which provides that “when a person who has committed the crime of robbery causes another to suffer injury at the scene of the robbery, the person shall be punished by imprisonment with work for life or for a definite term of not less than 6 years.

  192. 192.

    See ibid., Article 241, the first sentence of which provides that “when a person committing the crime of robbery rapes a female, imprisonment with work for life or for a definite term of nor less than 7 years shall be imposed.

  193. 193.

    See ibid., Article 77(1.ii), which provides that if the perpetrator commits an insurrection, if he or she is a ringleader, life imprisonment may be imposed on him or her.

  194. 194.

    See ibid., Article 119, which provides that “a person who causes a flood to damage a building, train, tram, or mine actually used as a dwelling or in which a person is actually present shall be punished by the death penalty or imprisonment with work for life or for a definite term of not less than 3 years.”.

  195. 195.

    See ibid., Article 240, the second sentence of which provides that “when a person who has committed the crime of robbery, in the case of causing death, the death penalty or imprisonment with work for life shall be imposed.”.

  196. 196.

    See ibid., Article 241, the second sentence of which provides that “when a person who has committed the crime of robbery rapes a female, in the case of causing death thereby, the death penalty or imprisonment with work for life shall be imposed.

  197. 197.

    See the Statutes of the Republic of Singapore: Penal Code (chapter 224), Original Enactment: Ordinance 4 of 1871, the revised edition of the Laws Act (Chapter 275), in force from 01.04.2015. These 28 provisions include Articles 121, 121A, 121B, 122, 124, 125, 128, 130, 130B, 130E, 131, 132, 194, 195, 302, 305, 311, 313, 364, 371, 396, 400, 409, 412, 430A, 436, 438 and 449.

  198. 198.

    See ibid. These 7 provisions include Articles 222, 225, 304, 307, 314, 326 and 329.

  199. 199.

    The Penal Code of Japan, Act No. 45 of April 24, 1907 (日本国刑法45号, 1907年4月24日), Article 28.

  200. 200.

    Ibid., Article 29.

  201. 201.

    法務省 [Ministry of Justice of Japan], 無期刑の執行状況及び無期刑受刑者に係る仮釈放の運用状況について [The Status of Execution of Life Imprisonment and the Status of Release on Parole of Inmates Sentenced to Life Imprisonment], available at: http://www.moj.go.jp/content/001208315.pdf (Last visited: January 23rd, 2024).

  202. 202.

    Ibid.

  203. 203.

    See ibid., Articles 66 and 67.

  204. 204.

    Ibid., Article 68.

  205. 205.

    The Statutes of the Republic of Singapore: Criminal Procedure Code (Chapter 68), original enactment: Act 15 of 2010, revised edition of the Laws Act (Chapter 275), 31st August 2012, Article 333(1).

  206. 206.

    The Statutes of the Republic of Singapore: Constitution of the Republic of Singapore (Chapter const.), Original enactment: S 1/63, the revised edition of the Laws Act (Chapter 275), 1st July, 1999, Article 22P.

  207. 207.

    The Statutes of the Republic of Singapore: Criminal Procedure Code (Chapter 68), Article 334.

  208. 208.

    The Statutes of the Republic of Singapore: Prison Act (Chapter 247), original enactment: Ordinance 17 of 1933, the revised edition of the Laws Act (Chapter 275), 30th December 2000, Article 50F(1).

  209. 209.

    Ibid., Article 50F(2).

  210. 210.

    Ibid., Article 50O.

  211. 211.

    Ibid., Article 50P(1).

  212. 212.

    Ibid., Article 50P(2).

  213. 213.

    Ibid., Article 50Q.

  214. 214.

    VEGA Connie de la, SOLTER Amanda, KWON Soo-Ryun and ISAAC Dana Marie, above no. 692. In this Report, these 33 states include Andorra (the maximum sentence is 30 years), Angola (30 years), Bolivia (30 years), Bosnia (45 years), Brazil (30 years), Cape Verde (25 years), Colombia (50 years), Costa Rica (50 years), Croatia (40 years), Dominican Republic (30 years), Ecuador (35 years), El Salvador (75 years), Guinea Bissau (25 years), Honduras (30 years), Italy (30 years), Maldives (25 years), Mauritius (60 years), Mexico (70 years), Montenegro (30 years), Mozambique (30 years), Nepal (30 years), Nicaragua (30 years), Panama (50 years), Paraguay (25 years), Peru (35 years), Portugal (25 years), San Marino (40 years), Serbia (40 years), Spain (40 years), Macedonia (20 years), Timor-leste (30 years), Uruguay (30 years), Venezuela (30 years).

  215. 215.

    The Norwegian General Civil Penal Code, Act of 22 May 1902 No. 10, with subsequent amendments, Act of 21 December 2005, No. 131, Section 15.

  216. 216.

    Ibid., Section 17.

  217. 217.

    Ibid.

  218. 218.

    Ibid., Section 62.

  219. 219.

    These provisions include Articles 83, 84, 86, 86b, 88, 97, 98, 99, 99a, 100, 101, 102, 110, 117, 117a, 147a, 148, 151a, 152, 152b, 153, 154, 162, 169, 192, 196, 225, 231, 232, 233, 245, 268, and 317.

  220. 220.

    The Portuguese Criminal Code, Legislative Decree n. 4/2003 of November 18, 2003, Article 41.

  221. 221.

    Ibid., Article 77.

  222. 222.

    Ibid., these provisions include Articles 131 (Homicídio, Murder), 132 (Homicídio qualificado, assigned homicide), 158 (Sequestro, kidnapping), 159 (Escravidão, slavery), 160 (Rapto, abduction), 210 (Roubo, theft), 214 (Dano com violência, damage with violence), 223 (Extorsão, extortion), 239 (Genocídio, genocide), 241 (Crimes de guerra contra civis, war crime against civilians), 244 (Tortura e outros tratamentos cruéis, degradantes ou desumanos graves, torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment), 287 (Captura ou desvio de aeronave, navio, comboio ou veículo de transporte colectivo de passageiros, capture or diversion of aircraft, ship, train, or transport vehicle, collective bus), 300 (Organizações terroristas, terrorist organization), 308 (Traição à pátria, treason of the homeland), 309 (Serviço militar em forças armadas inimigas, military service in enemy armed forces), 310 (Inteligências com o estrangeiro para provocar guerra, intelligence with a foreigner to provoke war), 313 (Ajuda a forças armadas inimigas, helping enemy military forces), 317 (Espionagem, espionage), 325 (Alteração violenta do Estado de direito, violent change in the rule of law), 326 (Incitamento à guerra civil ou à alteração violenta do Estado de direito, incitement to civil war or violent change of the rule of law), and 327 (Atentado contra o Presidente da República, attach on the President of the Republic).

  223. 223.

    The Norway General Civil Penal Code, Act of 22 May 1902 No. 10, with subsequent amendments, Act of 21 December 2005, No. 131, Section 55.

  224. 224.

    Ibid., Section 83.

  225. 225.

    Ibid.

  226. 226.

    See The Portuguese Criminal Code, Legislative Decree n. 4/2003 of November 18, 2003. Furthermore, this case includes Articles 244 (torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment), 287 (capture or diversion of aircraft, ship, train or transport vehicle), 300 (promoting or establishing a terrorist group), 309 (military service in enemy armed forces), and 327 (attack on the President of the Republic).

  227. 227.

    Ibid., Article 132.

  228. 228.

    Ibid., Article 158.

  229. 229.

    Ibid., Article 160.

  230. 230.

    Ibid., Article 214.

  231. 231.

    The Norwegian General Civil Penal Code, Act of 22 May 1902 No. 10, with subsequent amendments, Act of 21 December 2005, No. 131, Section 39 f.

  232. 232.

    Ibid.

  233. 233.

    Ibid.

  234. 234.

    Ibid., Section 38g.

  235. 235.

    The Execution of Sentences Act, Section 42. Available at: http://www.kriminalomsorgen.no/getfile.php/2018208.823.ytdxsvbtbe/Straffegjennomf%C3%B8ringsloven+engelsk.pdf (Last visited: January 23rd, 2024).

  236. 236.

    Ibid.

  237. 237.

    Ibid.

  238. 238.

    Kriminalomsorgen, Kriminalomsorgens årsstatistikk – 2015, 6. Available at: http://www.kriminalomsorgen.no/publikasjoner.242465.no.html (Last visited: January 23rd, 2024).

  239. 239.

    Ibid., 39.

  240. 240.

    The Portuguese Criminal Code, Legislative Decree n. 4/2003 of November 18, 2003, Article 90.

  241. 241.

    Ibid., Article 61.

  242. 242.

    Ibid., Articles 90, 92 and 94.

  243. 243.

    Portugal’s Constitution of 1976 with Amendments through 2005, Article 161.

  244. 244.

    Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Portugual (Ministra da Justiça), Relatório Anual de Segurança Interna 2016 [Annual Internal Security Report 2016], 133. Available at: http://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/pm/documentos/20170331-pm-rasi-2016.aspx (Last visited: January 23rd, 2024).

  245. 245.

    Graham v. Florida, 982 So. 2d 43, 52(Fla, Dist, 2010). See also LERNER Craig S., Life without Parole as a Conflicted Punishment, Wake Forest Law Review, 2013, Vol. 48, 1101–1171.

  246. 246.

    Universal Declaration on Human Rights, GA Res 217 A (III), UN GAOR, 3rd sess, 183rd plen mtg, UN Doc A/810 (10 December 1984).

  247. 247.

    Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, opened for signature November 4, 1950, 2013 UNTS 221, entered into force 3 September 1953.

  248. 248.

    UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, General Assembly Resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989, Article 37a.

  249. 249.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, A/CONF. 183/9 of 17 July 1998, Article 110(3).

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    Gui Huang

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Huang, G. (2024). General Issues Concerning Life Imprisonment. In: On the Alternative Punishment to the Death Penalty in China. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1627-2_5

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