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General Views on Criminal Punishment in China

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On the Alternative Punishment to the Death Penalty in China

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Abstract

This chapter is a general theoretical discussion of criminal punishment in China. Based on China’s realities, this chapter intends to analyse the nature of criminal punishment in China, which is considered “a dictatorship punishment instrument” and the purpose of criminal punishment, which always has a retributive goal, and punishment decisions, which focus on the political requirements of discretionary punishment and practical problems in judicial practice, i.e., problems related to the justice of punishment decisions.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    TREVASKES Susan, Lenient Death Sentencing and the “Cash for Clemency” Debate, The China Journal, 2015, Vol. 73, 39.

  2. 2.

    See 陈翼平 [Chen Yiping], 《坚持党的领导》 [Upholding the Leadership of the Party], available at: 求是网 (Qstheory.cn). http://www.qstheory.cn/dukan/qs/2014-11/16/c_1113228486.htm (Last visited: December 3rd, 2023).

  3. 3.

    Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Some Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening the Reform, above no. 5.

  4. 4.

    The CCP Central Committee Decision concerning Some Major Questions in Comprehensively Moving Governing the Country According to the Law Forward, available at: https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2014/10/28/ccp-central-committee-decision-concerning-some-major-questions-in-comprehensively-moving-governing-the-country-according-to-the-law-forward/ (Last visited: December 10th, 2023).

  5. 5.

    See ibid.

  6. 6.

    蒋传光, 王逸飞 [JIANG Chuangang and WANG Yifei], 《论社会主义意识形态对当代法治发展的主导作用》 [On the Leading Role of Socialist Ideology in the Development of Rule of Law in the Contemporary of China], 学习与探索 [Study & Exploration] 2011, No. 5, 97.

  7. 7.

    Ibid, 99.

  8. 8.

    TREVASKES Susan, Using Mao to Package Criminal Justice Discourse in 21st Century China, China Quarterly, 2016, Vol. 226, 299.

  9. 9.

    Ibid.

  10. 10.

    顾培东[GU Peidong], 《当代中国法治共识的形成及法治再启蒙》[On the Formation of the Consensus of Rule of Law and its Re-enlightenment in Contemporary China], available at: 中国社会科学网(Chinese Social Sciences Net) http://ex.cssn.cn/fx/201708/t20170830_3624561.shtml (Last visited: December 12th, 2023).

  11. 11.

    Ibid.

  12. 12.

    Ibid.

  13. 13.

    Ibid.

  14. 14.

    GARDINER Gerald, The Purposes of Criminal Punishment, The Modern Law Review, 1958, Vol. 21, No. 2, 8.

  15. 15.

    刘耀彬 [LIU Yaobin], 《马克思主义犯罪学思想研究》 [On Marxist Thought on Criminology], 南京航空航天大学博士论文 [Ph.D. Dissertation, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics] 2010, 46.

  16. 16.

    《马克思恩格斯全集》 [The Collected Works of Marx And Engels], Vol. 3 (391), available at:  http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/64184/180145/180168/10864948.html (Last visited: December 13th, 2023).

  17. 17.

    邓定一, 康松林 [DENG Dingyi and KANG Songlin], 《马克思的犯罪概念是刑法理论的根本变革》 [The Marxist Notion of the offense is a Fundamental Change of the Criminal Theory], 现代法学 [Modern Law Science] 1983, No. 2, 21–22.

  18. 18.

    See 赵延光 [ZHAO Yanguang], 《论 “犯罪是孤立的个人反对统治关系的斗争”》 [On the Argument that “crime is a struggle done by an isolative individual against the ‘rule relationship’], 贵州大学学报: 社会科学版 [Journal of Guizhou University (Social Sciences)] 1984, No. 1, 69.

  19. 19.

    《马克思恩格斯全集》 [The Collected Works of Marx And Engels], Vol. 3 (391), above no. 45.

  20. 20.

    《列宁全集》 [The collected Works of Vladimir Lenin], Vol. 18 (259)”, available at: http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/64184/180146/180248/10899743.html (Last visited: December 17th, 2023).

  21. 21.

    袁江华 [YUAN Jianghua], 《马克思主义刑罚思想中国化研究综述》 [Literature Review on Marxist Thought on Criminal Punishment with Chinese Characteristics], 毛泽东邓小平理论研究 [Studies on Mao Zedong’s and Deng Xiaoping’s Theories] 2010, No. 5, 49; and see also 江礼华[JIANG Lihua], 《毛泽东的刑罚思想》 [On Mao Zedong’s Thought on Criminal Punishment], 中央检察官管理学院学报 [Journal of the Central College of the Procurator] 1993, No. Z1, 7.

  22. 22.

    See 袁江华 [YUAN Jianghua], 《马克思主义刑罚思想中国化论纲》 [On the Sinicization of Marxist Thought on Punishment], 扬州大学博士论文 [Ph.D. Dissertation, Yang Zhou University] 2011, 77.

  23. 23.

    MAO Zedong (MAO Tse-tung), Contradictions under Socialism, in “Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung: Vol. 7, available at: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-7/mswv7_466.htm (Last visited: December 19th, 2017).

  24. 24.

    毛泽东[MAO Zedong], 《关于镇压反革命》[Comment on Suppressing and Liquidating Counterrevolutionaries], 毛泽东选集 [Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung: Vol. 6], available at: http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/64184/64185/189966/11568071.html (Last visited: December 20th, 2023).

  25. 25.

    Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), On the Struggle against the ‘Three Evils’ and the ‘Five Evils’, “Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung: Vol. 5”, available at: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-5/mswv5_17.htm (Last visited: December 29th, 2023).

  26. 26.

    See MAO Zedong, On the People’s Democratic Dictatorship, Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung: Vol. 7, available at: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-4/mswv4_65.htm (Last visited: December 30th, 2023).

  27. 27.

    MAO Zedong, The Situation in the Summer of 1957, Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung: Vol. 5, available at: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-5/mswv5_66.htm (Last visited: December 30th, 2023).

  28. 28.

    MAO Zedong, On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People, Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung: Vol. 5”, available at: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-5/mswv5_58.htm#v5_89 (Last visited: January 1st, 2024).

  29. 29.

    Ibid.

  30. 30.

    Ibid.

  31. 31.

    TREVASKES Susan, Using Mao to Package Criminal Justice Discourse in 21st-century China, above no. 37, 300.

  32. 32.

    江礼华 [JIANG Lihua], above no. 50, 8.

  33. 33.

    See ibid.

  34. 34.

    FLORIA Ryan, The Capital Punishment Fits the Crime: A Comparative Analysis of the Death Penalty and Proportionality in the United States of America and the People’s Republic of China, University of Miami International and Comparative Law Review, 2008, Vol. 16, No. 1, 68.

  35. 35.

    See 徐增文, 房博 [XU Zengwen and FANG Bo], 《社会主导意识形态变迁与中国经济发展::1978–2008》 [The Changes of the Socially Dominant Ideology and the Development of the Economy in China: From 1978 to 2008], 南京政治学院学报 [Journal of PLA Nanjing Institute of Politics] 2008, No. 6, 5.

  36. 36.

    GAO Mingxuan and ZHAO Bingzhi, The Evolution of Chinese Criminal Legislation, Law Press. China, Beijing, 2007, 69.

  37. 37.

    MAO Zedong, The Situation in the Summer of 1957, Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung: Vol. 5, above no. 56.

  38. 38.

    MAO Zedong, Fight for A Fundamental Turn for the Better in the Nation’s Financial and Economic Situation, Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung: Vol. 5”, available at: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-5/mswv5_06.htm (Last visited: January 2nd, 2024).

  39. 39.

    Ibid.

  40. 40.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [The Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 5, 1979, Article 1.

  41. 41.

    Ibid, Article 2.

  42. 42.

    See generally TREVASKES Susan, The Shifting Sands of Punishment in China in the Era of ‘Harmonious Society, Law & Policy, 2010, Vol. 32, No. 3, 332–361.

  43. 43.

    After Mao: The Rise of Deng Xiaoping, available at: Facts and Details http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat2/sub7/entry-5537.html (Last visited: January 2nd, 2024).

  44. 44.

    Ibid.

  45. 45.

    See 徐增文, 房博 [XU Zengwen and FANG Bo], above no. 64, 5.

  46. 46.

    These data are from 董方, 徐建 [DONG Fang and XU Jian], 《对改革开放以来我国刑事犯罪增减变化的评析》 [Analyzing the Changes of the Criminal Cases since the Reform and Opening-up in China], 青少年犯罪问题 [Issues on Juvenile Crimes and Delinquency] 1995, No. 2, 1; 夏菲 [XIA Fei], 《观念误区与犯罪现象关联的分析: 我国改革开放进程中犯罪问题的回顾与反思》[Analyzing the Relationship between Wrong Concepts and Crime Phenomena: Reviewing and Rethinking the Crime Issues in the Process of the Reform and Opening up in China], 犯罪研究 [Criminal Research] 2001, No. 2, 21.

  47. 47.

    DENG Xiaoping, Uphold the Four Cardinal Principles”, Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping: Volume II, available at: https://dengxiaopingworks.wordpress.com/2013/02/25/uphold-the-four-cardinal-principles/ (Last visited: January 2nd, 2024).

  48. 48.

    DENG Xiaoping, The Present Situation and the Tasks before Us, Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping: Volume II, available at: https://dengxiaopingworks.wordpress.com/2013/02/25/the-present-situation-and-the-tasks-before-us/ (Last visited: January 3rd, 2024).

  49. 49.

    DENG Xiaoping, Talk at a Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee, Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, available at: https://dengxiaopingworks.wordpress.com/2013/03/18/talk-at-a-meeting-of-the-standing-committee-of-the-political-bureau-of-the-central-committee/ (Last visited: January 4th, 2024).

  50. 50.

    DENG Xiaoping, The Overriding Need is for Stability, Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping: Volume III, available at: https://dengxiaopingworks.wordpress.com/2013/03/18/the-overriding-need-is-for-stability/ (Last visited: January 4th, 2024).

  51. 51.

    于建嵘 [YU Jianrong], 《当前压力维稳的困境与出路——再论中国社会的刚性稳定》 [The Problems and the Solution of the Present Pressure on Stability: Reviewing again the Stiff Stability in China’s Society], available at: 爱思想 [Aisixing.com] http://www.aisixiang.com/data/58296.html (Last visited: January 4th, 2024).

  52. 52.

    于建嵘 [YU Jianrong], 《从刚性稳定到韧性稳定——关于中国社会秩序的一个分析框架》 [From Stiff Stability to Flexible Stability: An Analyzing Framework on the Social Order in China], 学习与探索 [Study & Exploration] 2009, No. 5, 113–115.

  53. 53.

    Ibid.

  54. 54.

    于建嵘 [YU Jianrong], 《当前压力维稳的困境与出路——再论中国社会的刚性稳定》[The Problems and the Solution of the Present Pressure on Stability: Reviewing again the Stiff Stability in China’s Society], above no. 80.

  55. 55.

    DENG Xiaoping, Take A Clear-Cut Stand against Bourgeois Liberalization, Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, available at: https://dengxiaopingworks.wordpress.com/2013/03/18/take-a-clear-cut-stand-against-bourgeois-liberalization/ (Last visited: January 5th, 2024).

  56. 56.

    GAO Mingxuan and ZHAO Bingzhi, above no. 65, 79–80.

  57. 57.

    See ibid, 92–93.

  58. 58.

    DENG Xiaoping, Crack down on Crime, Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, available at: https://dengxiaopingworks.wordpress.com/2013/03/08/crack-down-on-crime/ (Last visited: January 5th, 2024).

  59. 59.

    CHAI Winberg, China after Deng Xiaoping: Some Encouraging-and Not-So-Encouraging-Signs, Asian Affairs: An American Review, 1997, Vol. 24, Issue 2, 90.

  60. 60.

    Ibid.

  61. 61.

    于建嵘 [YU Jianrong], 《共治威权与法治威权——中国政治发展的问题与出路》 [Condominium Authoritarian Regime and the Authoritarian Regime of the Rule of Law: the Problems and Outlooks of Political Development in China], above no. 27, 22.

  62. 62.

    江泽民 [Jiang Zemin], 《坚决打击走私犯罪活动》[Resolutely Crack down on Smuggling Crime Activities], 江泽民选集 [Selected Works of Jiang Zemin], available at: http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/64184/64185/180138/10818637.html (Last visited: January 6th, 2024).

  63. 63.

    See 史丹顿 [SHI Dandun], 《2001年第三次 ‘严打’: ‘打黑除恶’ 再掀高潮》 [The Third “Strike Hard” Campaign in 2001: The Campaign of Cracking down on Criminal Syndicates Had Another Major Shift], 国家.

    人文历史 [National Humanity History] 2013, No. 16, 31. In this paper, the author states that, “in 2000, there were in all 3.63 million criminal cases which were reported to and filed by the police security organs.

  64. 64.

    江泽民 [JIANG Zemin], 《切实加强社会治安工作》[Practically Improving the Works of Public Security], 江泽民选集 [Selected Works of Jiang Zemin], available at: http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/64184/64185/180139/10818572.html (Last visited: January 7th, 2024).

  65. 65.

    黎宏 [LI Hong], 《刑事和解:一种新的刑罚改革理念》 [Criminal Reconciliation: A New Penalty Reform Notion], 法学论坛 [Legal Forum] 2006, Vol. 21, No. 4, 13.

  66. 66.

    See 许晓龙 [XU Xiaolong], 《从 “统治” 到 “治理”:中国行政思维的历史嬗变》 [From ‘Ruling’ to ‘Governance’: The Historical Evolution of the Administration Logic of China], 观察与思考 [Observation and Ponderation] 2014, No. 6, 60.

  67. 67.

    See ibid.

  68. 68.

    See 胡联合, 胡鞍钢, 魏星 [HU Lianhe, HU Angang and WEI Xing], 《国家治理::社会矛盾的实证研究》 [National Governance: Empirical Study of National Social Contradiction], 新疆师范大学学报 (哲学社会科学版) [Journal of Xinjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)] 2014, Vol. 35, No. 3, 12.

  69. 69.

    See 许晓龙 [XU Xiaolong], above no. 95, 56; see also 王学荣 [WANG Xuerong, 《从统治到治理: 国家政治理念的上升——以十八届三中全会的相关论述为起点》 [From Ruling to Governance: The Increase of the Political Idea of the State—Starting with the Relevant Point of the Third Plenary Session of 18th CPC], 机构与行政[Organizations and Administration] 2015, No. 4, 18–22; 孔繁斌 [KONG Fanbin], 《 治理对话统治:一个政治发展范式的阐释》[Conversation between Governance and Ruling: An Exploration of the Approach to Political Development], 南京社会科学[Social Sciences in Nanjing] 2006, No. 11, 62–67.

  70. 70.

    Ibid.

  71. 71.

    The CCP Central Committee Decision concerning Some Major Questions in Comprehensively Moving Governing the Country According to the Law Forward, above no. 33.

  72. 72.

    王庆德 [WANG Qingde], 《人民内部矛盾并非仅是利益问题》 [The Internal Contradictions among the People are not only Interest Problems], available at: http://theory.people.com.cn/GB/49154/49156/13467113.html (Last visited: January 8th, 2024).

  73. 73.

    黎宏 [LI Hong], above no. 94, 13–18.

  74. 74.

    徐光华 [XU Ganghua], 《个案类型特征视阈下的刑事司法与民意——以2005至2014年130个影响性刑事案件为研究范本》 [Criminal Justice and Public Opinion from the Perspective of the Type-features of Individual Cases: Taking 130 Criminal Cases Having Great Impact from 2005 to 2014 As the Study Example], 法律科学 (西北政法大学学报) [ Science of Law (Journal of Northwest University of Political Science and Law)] 2015, No. 5, 30.

  75. 75.

    Ibid.

  76. 76.

    黄凯峰 [HUANG Kaifeng], 《关于改革开放以来意识形态建设的几点认识》[Some Understandings of the Developments of Ideology since the Reform and Opening-up], available at: 中国社会科学网[Chinese Social Science Net] http://www.cssn.cn/ddzg/ddzg_ldjs/ddzg_wh/201105/t20110514_812709.shtml (Last visited: January 8th, 2024).

  77. 77.

    魏昌东[WEI Changdong], 《新刑法工具主义批判与矫正》 [Criticizing and Correcting the New Criminal Instrumentalism], 法学 [Law Science] 2016, No. 2, 87.

  78. 78.

    《中华人民共和国刑法修正案(八)》 [The Eighth Amendment to the Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], above no. 1, Articles. 8 and 22. For the criminalization of refusing to pay labor remuneration, many Chinese sholars raised their objection, they argued that refusing to pay labor remuneration is a kind of the private legal behavior and can be dealed with by the Civil Law and relevant Administration Law. See 王海军[WANG Haijun], 《拒不支付劳动报酬罪的规范性解读—基于 “双重法益”的新立场》[Normatively Analyzing the Crime of Refusing to Pay Labor Remuneration: On the New Basis of the Dual Legal Interests], 法学评论[Law Review] 2013, No. 5, 122.

  79. 79.

    See 魏昌东 [WEI Changdong], above no. 106, 87.

  80. 80.

    王超强, 周宏, 倪晓一 [WANG Chaoqiang, ZHOU Hong and NI Xiaoyi], 《胡锦涛刑法思想探析》 [Examining the Criminal Thought of Hu Jintao], 学理论 [Theory Research] 2012, No. 16, 131.

  81. 81.

    《习近平: 打好反恐人民战争》 [XIN Jinping: Making a Good People War on Terror], available at: http://money.163.com/14/0504/08/9RD094QG00253B0H.html (Last visited: January 9th, 2024).

  82. 82.

    周少华 [ZHOU Shaohua], 《刑罚目的观之理论清理》 [Theoretically Reviewing the Opinions on the Penalty Aims], 东方法学 [Oriental Law] 2012, No. 1, 13.

  83. 83.

    李永升, 冯文杰 [LI Rongsheng and FENG Wenjie], 《刑罚目的新界说》[New Definitions of the Purposes of the Criminal Punishment], 湖南警察学院学报[Journal of Hunan Police Academy] 2016, Vol. 28, No. 2, 23. Although there are also other arguments, such as the reinstatement of social justice, implementation of justice, correction (rehabilitation) of the convict, resocialization, punishing, and expressing public condemnation, etc., this paper only focuses on the retributivism, prevention, and eclecticism. See 周少华 [ZHOU Shaohua], above no. 111, 15–18.

  84. 84.

    BRUDNER Alan, Retributivism and the Death Penalty, The University of Toronto Law Journal, 1980, Vol. 30, No. 4, 339.

  85. 85.

    See HUANG Gui, The Death Penalty in China after the Ninth Amendment: Legislative Abolishing and Judicially Limiting, Journal of Forensic Science & Criminology, 2016, Vol. 4, Issue. 3, 3.

  86. 86.

    《最高人民法院:中国相当时期内不具备废除死刑条件》 [Supreme People’s Court: China Does Not Have Any Conditions to Abolish the Death Penalty in A Considerably Long Time], available at: 人民网 [People Net] http://society.people.com.cn/GB/42735/6979231.html (Last visited: January 9th, 2024).

  87. 87.

    王文华 [WANG Wenhua], 《“法外复仇”传统与 “仇恨犯罪”的抗制——以中国传统复仇文化为视角》 [‘Extrajudicial Revenge’ and the Prevention of Hate Crime: From the Perspective of the Culture of Revenge in Chinese Tradition], 法学论坛 [Legal Forum] 2011, Vol. 26, No. 6, 54.

  88. 88.

    See 沈寅飞 [SHEN Yinfei, 《徐玉玉案9900元追回 徐父::如骗子判死刑 我不要钱》[9900 Yuan was Returned in the Case of Xu Yuyu, the Father of Xu said I Do not Want Money if the Perpetrator is Sentenced to Death], available at: 南方网[South Net] http://news.southcn.com/china/content/2016-10/12/content_157394962.htm (Last visited: January 11th, 2024).

  89. 89.

    See 《复旦投毒案今日宣判 受害人家属称不判死刑就抗诉》 [Judgement in the Poisoning Case in Fudan was Pronounced Today; the Victim’s Family Said That They Will Make a Counter-appeal if the Death Penalty Is Not Imposed], available at: SOHU Net http://news.sohu.com/20140218/n395162155.shtml (Last visited: January 11th, 2024).

  90. 90.

    王世洲 [WANG Shizhou], 《危害国家安全罪的信条学考察》 [Dogmatically Review the Crimes of Endangering National Security], 中国刑事法杂志 [Criminal Science] 2012, No. 8, 13.

  91. 91.

    Ibid, 9.

  92. 92.

    See 李华 [LI Hua], 《论我国刑法中的绝对确定法定刑》 [On the Absolutely Determined Statutory Punishment Provided in China’s Criminal Law], 法律适用 [Law Application] 1995, No. 9, 17.

  93. 93.

    These crimes include the crime of hijacking aircraft (Article 121 provides that any hijacker who causes serious injury to, or the death of, any other person or serious damage to the aircraft shall be sentenced to death), the crime of abducting and trafficking in woman and children (Article 240 provides that if the circumstance is especially serious, the culprit shall be sentenced to death), the crime of instigating a riot to escape from prison and the crime of gathering people to raid a prison with weapons (for these two crimes, Article 317 provides that the ringleaders shall be sentenced to death if the circumstances are especially serious). See 《中国人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Oder No. 30, 2015.

  94. 94.

    樊文 [FAN Wen], 《犯罪控制的惩罚主义及其效果》 [The Punitive Nature of Crime Control and its Effectiveness], 法学研究 [Chinese Journal of Law] 2011, No. 3, 122.

  95. 95.

    《中国人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Oder No. 30, 2015.

  96. 96.

    《 刑法最新罪名一览表》[Chart Showing the New Crimes in the Criminal Law], available at: http://www.zuiming.net/51.html (Last visited: January 12th, 2024).

  97. 97.

    《中国人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Oder No. 30, 2015.

  98. 98.

    Ibid.

  99. 99.

    Ibid, Article 227.

  100. 100.

    See 《北京市第二中级人民法院刑事裁定书》 [Criminal Ruling of Beijing Second Intermediate People’s Court], (2015) 二中刑减字第1634号 [The Second Intermediate Criminal Commutation, No. 1634, 2015].

  101. 101.

    See 高永明 [GAO Yongming], 《罚金刑的基底性批判——罚金刑执行难的另一种解读》 [Thorough Animadversion to the Penal Fine: Another Understanding of the Difficulties in the Execution of the Penal Fine], 河北法学 [Hebei Law Science] 2014, Vol. 32, No. 10, 74. In this paper, the author reports that there are 277 provisions (including the paragraphs) in the Code providing unlimited penal fines, 42 provisions (including the paragraphs) providing proportion penal fines, and 46 provisions (including the paragraphs) providing specific amounts.

  102. 102.

    Ibid, 75.

  103. 103.

    《中国人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Oder No. 30, 2015, Article 53. This provides that, “if a person is not able to pay the fine in full, the People's Court shall demand the payment whenever it finds the person has property for execution of the fine.”.

  104. 104.

    王衍松, 吴优 [WANG Yansong and WU You], 《罚金刑适用研究——高适用率与低实执率之二律背反》 [On Application of the Penal Fine: The Antinomy of the High Rate of the Application and the Low Rate of Implementation], 中国刑事法杂志 [Criminal Science] 2013, No. 6, 13.

  105. 105.

    Chinese scholars and the officials deny LWOR is a new punishment measure but say that LWOR is a new method of carrying out the punishment. See 余文唐 [YU Wentang], 《终身监禁逆用之法理辨思》 [Juridically Reviewing the Reversal Use of Life Imprisonment without Release], available at: http://ywt0207.fyfz.cn/b/876139 (Last visited: January 15th, 2024).

  106. 106.

    《中华人民共和国刑法修正案(九)》 [The Ninth Amendment to Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], above no. 6, Article 44.

  107. 107.

    《中国人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 30, 2015, Article 383.

  108. 108.

    See 《关于 中华人民共和国刑法修正案（九） 草案 > 的说明》 [The Explanations for the Draft of the Ninth Amendment to the Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], above no. 8.

  109. 109.

    IULIANO Jason, Why Capital Punishment is no Punishment at All, American University Law Review, 2015, Vol. 64, Issue.6, 1438.

  110. 110.

    黎宏[LI Hong], 《终身监禁的法律性质及适用》[On the Legal Nature of Life Imprisonment without Release and its Application], 中国检察官 [The Chinese Procurators] 2016, No. 17, 23. The applicable precondition for LWOR is that the convict should be sentenced to the death penalty with reprieve.

  111. 111.

    《中国人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 30, 2015, Article 65.

  112. 112.

    Ibid, Article 66.

  113. 113.

    Ibid, Article 74.

  114. 114.

    Ibid, Article 65.

  115. 115.

    劳佳琦 [LAO Jiaqi], 《累犯从严量刑适用实证研究》 [Empirical Study on the Sentencing Application of A Heavier Punishment for A Recidivist], 中国法学 [Chinese Legal Science] 2016, No. 1, 274.

  116. 116.

    Ibid; see also, 贾宇, 舒洪水 [JIA Yu and SHU Hongshui], 《累犯制度研究》 [On the Recidivist System], 山东警察学院学报 [Journal of Shandong Public Security College] 2005, No. 5, 28.

  117. 117.

    苏彩霞 [SU Caixia], 《累犯制度设立根据之探究》 [Exploring the Basis for the Establishment of the Recidivist System], 中国法学 [Chinese Legal Science] 2002, No. 5, 175.

  118. 118.

    Ibid, 174.

  119. 119.

    Ibid.

  120. 120.

    Ibid.

  121. 121.

    樊文[FAN Wen], above no. 123, 124.

  122. 122.

    《中国人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Oder No. 30, 2015, Article 66.

  123. 123.

    尤金亮 [YOU Jinliang], 《刑罚裁量中法律效果与社会效果的比较与选择》 [On the Comparison and the Choice between the Legal Effect and the Social Effect during Sentencing], 学术界 [Academics] 2013, No. 3, 181.

  124. 124.

    吕方 [LV Fang], 《穿行于理想和现实之间的平衡——从法律文化的视角解读 “法律效果和社会效果的统一”》 [The Balance Between the Ideal and the Reality: Reviewing the Unity of the Effect and the Social Effect from the Perspective of Legal Culture], 法学论坛 [Legal Forum] 2005, Vol. 20, No. 3, 128.

  125. 125.

    Ibid.

  126. 126.

    Ibid.

  127. 127.

    尤金亮 [YOU Jinliang], above no. 152, 185.

  128. 128.

    See, 《全国民事案件审判质量工作座谈会纪要》 [The Work Symposium Summary of the National Trial Quality of Civil Cases], 1999 (法 [1999]231号) [Legal No. 231], available at: http://www.law-lib.com/law/law_view.asp?id=17091 (Last visited: January 15th, 2024).

  129. 129.

    李国光 [LI Guoguang], 《办案的重要标准:法律效果与社会效果的统一》 [An Important Standard of Handling the Case: the Unity of the Legal Effect and Social Effect], available at: 光明新闻 [News.gmw.cn] http://www.gmw.cn/01gmrb/2000-01/25/GB/01%5E18312%5E0%5EGMB1-210.htm (Last visited: January 15th, 2024).

  130. 130.

    黄晓亮, 王霖 [HUANG Xiaoliang and WANG Lin], 《死刑适用法律效果与社会效果问题研究》 [On the Problems of the Legal Effect and the Social Effect of the Use of the Death Penalty], 法治研究 [Research on Rule of Law] 2013, No. 1, 62.

  131. 131.

    See 《最高人民法院再审刘涌案刑事判决书》 [The SPC’s Criminal-retrial Judgement in the Case of liu Yong], (2003) 刑提字第5号 [Criminal Interrogation No. 5, 2003], available at: 中国法院网 (China Court) http://old.chinacourt.org/public/detail.php?id=96393 (Last visited: January 15th, 2024).

  132. 132.

    See 汪明亮 [WANG Mingliang], 《论死刑量刑社会学模式——以 “刘涌案” 为分析视角》 [On the Sociological Model of the Death Sentence: From the Perspective of the Case of Liu Yong], 中国刑法学年会文集 (第1卷: 死刑问题研究) [Collected Works of the 2004 Annual Conference on China’s Criminal Law: On the Death Penalty (Volume 1)], 中国人民公安大学出版社 [China’s People’s Public Security University Press], Beijing, 2004, 692.

  133. 133.

    《最高人民法院再审刘涌案刑事判决书》 [The SPC’s Criminal-retrial Judgement in the Case of Liu Yong], (2003)刑提字第5号 [Criminal Interrogation, No. 5, 2003], available at: 中国法院网 (China Court) http://old.chinacourt.org/public/detail.php?id=96393 (Last visited: January 16th, 2024).

  134. 134.

    冯军 [FENG Jun], 《评最高人民法院再审刘涌案刑事判决书》 [Review on the Supreme People’s Court’s Judgement on the Case of Liu Yong], 刑事法评论 [Criminal Law Review], edited by 陈兴良 [CHEN Xingliang], 中国政法大学出版社 [China University of Political Science and Law Press], Beijing, 2004, Vol. 14, 130.

  135. 135.

    汪明亮 [WANG Mingliang], 《论死刑量刑社会学模式——以 “刘涌案 “为分析视角》 [On the Sociological Model of the Death Sentence: From the Perspective of the Case of Liu Yong], 中国刑法学年会文集(第1卷: 死刑问题研究) [Collected Works of the 2004 Annual Conference on China’s Criminal Law: On the Death Penalty (Volume 1)], 中国人民公安大学出版社 [China’s People’s Public Security University Press], Beijing, 2004, 696.

  136. 136.

    See 冒丽 [MAO Li], 《从许霆案透视法律效果与社会效果的统一> [Reviewing the Unity of the Legal Effect and the Social Effect from the Case of Xu Ting], 天水行政学院学报 [Journal of Tianshui College of Administration] 2009, No. 5, 96.

  137. 137.

    顾培东 [GU Peidong], 《能动司法若干问题研究》 [On the Problems of the Active Judiciary], 中国法学 [China Legal Science] 2010, No. 4, 5. In China’s context and reality, the active judiciary is very different from the Western concept of judicial activism because Chinese judges do not have power to conduct a judicial review of the constitution, and establish the legal rules in individual cases. See 姚莉 [YAO Li], 《当代中国语境下的 “能动司法” 界说》 [On the Definition of the Active Judiciary in the Content of Contemporary China], 法商研究 [Studies in Law and Business] 2011, No. 1, 130.

  138. 138.

    陈金钊 [CHEN Jinzhao], 《被社会效果所异化的法律效果及其克服——对两个效果统一论的反思》 [On the Alienation of the Legal Effect Conducted by the Social Effect and Overriding it: Rethinking the Unity of the Two Effects], 东方法学 [Oriental Law] 2012, No. 6, 45.

  139. 139.

    Ibid, 46.

  140. 140.

    Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Some Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening the Reform, above no. 5.

  141. 141.

    《沈德咏与人大代表、政协委员座谈强调司法审判工作必须坚持群众路线》 [Shen Deyong Emphasizes “Judicial Works Must Uphold the Mass Line” When He Holds a Symposium with Members of the National People’s Committee], available at: 中华人民共和国最高人民法院 [The Supreme People’s Court of the People’s Republic of China] http://www.court.gov.cn/zixun-xiangqing-1755.html > ; see also, 《全面贯彻党的群众路线 让人民群众在每一个司法案件中都感受到公平正义》 [Completely Implement the Party’s Mass Line, Ensure that the People are Satisfied with Equality and Justice in Every Court Verdict], available at: 中华人民共和国最高人民法院 [The Supreme People’s Court of the People’s Republic of China] http://www.court.gov.cn/zixun-xiangqing-6149.html (Last visited: January 16th, 2024).

  142. 142.

    马艾地 [MA Aidi and WU Cunzai], 《从法律规则的局限性谈法律效果与社会效果》 [On the Legal Effect and Social Effect from the Perspective of the Limitation of the Legal Rules], 人民法院报 [People’s Court Daily], February 21st, 2004.

  143. 143.

    See 许霆案 [The Case of XU Ting], (2008) 穗中法刑二重字第00002号 [Hui Intermediate Court—The Second Criminal Court Second Trial No. 2 2008], available at: 广州审判网 [Guangzhou Judgement Net] http://www.gzcourt.gov.cn/cpws/wsjs/  (Last visited: January 16th, 2024). The reasons for the changes are not explained in the judgment, but it did say that, “according to the special situation in this case, approved by the Supreme People’s Court, the convict is sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of 5 years”.

  144. 144.

    See 《最高法:审判故意杀人等案件要注重法与社会效果的统一》 [Supreme People’s Court: It Should Pay Attention to the Unity of the Legal Effect and the Social Effect when Handling Murder and other Crimes], available at: 中华人民共和国最高人民法院 [The Supreme People’s Court of the People’s Republic of China] http://www.court.gov.cn/zixun-xiangqing-728.html (Last visited: January 16th, 2024).

  145. 145.

    See 山东省聊城中级人民法院刑事附带民事判决书 [The Criminal Incidental Civil Judgment of Liao Cheng Intermediate People’s Court, Shandong Province], (2016) 鲁15刑初33号 [Lu No. 5 Criminal First Trial, No. 33, 2016].

  146. 146.

    《沈德咏: 让热点案件成为全民共享法治公开课》 [Shen Deyong: To Make a Hot Case become an Open Course for the Public to Share in the Rule of Law], available at: 中华人民共和国最高人民法院 [The Supreme People’s Court of the People’s Republic of China] http://www.court.gov.cn/zixun-xiangqing-39292.html (Last visited: January 16th, 2024).

  147. 147.

    See 杜月秋 [DU Yueqiu], 《论裁判的正当性基础: 以法律效果和社会效果的相互关系为视角》 [On the Legitimate Base of the Judgment: From the Perspective of the Interrelationship of the Legal Effect and the Social Effect], 法律适用 [National Judges College Law Journal (Journal of Law Application)] 2007, No. 3, 38.

  148. 148.

    李国光 [LI Guoguang], above no. 158.

  149. 149.

    吕忠梅 [LV Zhongmei], 《论实现法律效果和社会效果的有机统一》 [Reanalyzing the Organic Unity of the Legal Effect and the Social Effect], 人民法院报 [People’s Court Daily], Version 5, November 4th, 2008.

  150. 150.

    See generally 刘正强 [LIU Zhengqiang], 《信访的 “容量” 分析——理解中国信访治理及其限度的一种思路》 [Analyzing the’Capacity’ of People’s Complaints Vis Letters or Visits: Towards Understanding the Handling of People’s Complaints and its Limits], 开放时代 [Open Times] 2014, No. 1, 130–144.

  151. 151.

    Even though we do not the exact number of these kind of cases to prove this statement, some individual cases have already shown this tendentiousness, such as the case of Xu Ting, and the case of Li Changkui. In the latter case, the criminal, Li Changkui, intentionally killed two people. The behavior of the criminal caused great public outrage, and he was sentenced to immediate execution in the first trial but in the second trial, the sentence was commuted to the death penalty with a reprieve; however, the local Higher People’s Court was asked by the SPC to review the sentence, and he was finally sentenced to immediate execution in the third judgment. See 李昌奎案 [LI Changkui An] [The Case of Li Changkui], available at: http://baike.so.com/doc/5430314-5668573.html (Last visited: January 16th, 2024); 李昌奎 [LI Changkui] (2010) 昭中刑一初字第52号 [(2010) Zhao intermediate Criminal Court First Trial. No. 52; (2010) 云高法终字第1314号 [(2010 Yun High Court Second Trial No. 1314).

  152. 152.

    尤金亮 [YOU Jinliang], above no. 152, 186.

  153. 153.

    Ibid.

  154. 154.

    陈金钊[CHEN Jinzhao], above no. 167, 46.

  155. 155.

    See 《最高法通知要求进一步扩大量刑规范化范围》 [The Supreme Court Requires the Further Extension of the Scope of the Standardization of Sentencing], available at: 中华人民共和国最高人民法院 [The Supreme People’s Court of the People’s Republic of China] http://www.court.gov.cn/zixun-xiangqing-39112.html (Last visited: January 16th, 2024).

  156. 156.

    HUANG Gui, On the Problems of Just Sentencing in China, Acta Juridica Hungarica [Hungarian Journal of Legal Studies], 2015, Vol. 56, Issue 2–3, 181. “Social harmfulness” is an important circumstance of the penalty discretion provided in China’s Criminal law.

  157. 157.

    The European Convention on Human Rights, Article 3.

  158. 158.

    Ibid, Article 7.

  159. 159.

    For instance, it is not allowed in criminal law to apply analogies or to convict and punish a person for a conduct which cannot be qualified as a crime according to the text of the criminal rules.

  160. 160.

    In 1992 the Council of Europe drafted a recommendation on the consistency of sentencing with the aim of achieving a greater consistency between the sentencing practice of courts in Europe. It contains suggestions concerning the rationales of sentencing, the structure of penalties, aggravating and mitigating factors and so on. This recommendation expects European judges to determine particular punishments according to common European principles which can lead to a coherent and justified sentencing system in the EU. [Council of Europe Committee of Ministers, Recommendation Nr. R (92) 17].

  161. 161.

    As Jerome Frank demonstrated, this kind of inconsistency can arise even within the sentencing practice of judges who work in the same court. See FRANK Jerome, Law & the Modern Mind, Transaction Publishers, St. Louis, 1963, 120.

  162. 162.

    STITH Kate and CABRANES Jose A., Fear of Judging. Sentencing Guidelines in Federal Courts, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1998, 38.

  163. 163.

    最高人民法院司法改革办公室 [The Office of Judicial Reform of the Supreme People’s Court of P.R.C.], 《人民法院量刑指导意见（试行）》 [The Guiding Opinions of the People’s Court for Sentencing on Trial], available at: 中国法院网 [China Court Net] http://www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2013/04/id/948052.shtml (Last visited: January 17th, 2024).

  164. 164.

    About the relevancy and efficiency of a sentencing guideline in judicial sentencing practice see STITH Kate and CABRANES Jose A., Fear of Judging. Sentencing Guidelines in Federal Courts, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1998, 104–142.

  165. 165.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 14 March 1997, Article 263.

  166. 166.

    李荣 [LI Rong], 《公正量刑机制研究》 [Research on the Guaranteeing System of Sentencing Justly], 中 央民族大学出版社 [Minzu University of China Press], Beijing, 2013, 67.

  167. 167.

    《中华人民共和国最高人民法院公报》[The Bulletins of the Supreme People’s Court of the People’s Republic of China], 2013年卷[ Vol. 2013], 人民法院出版社[People’s Court Press], Beijing, 2014, 463.

  168. 168.

    Ibid.

  169. 169.

    吴英 [WU ying], (2009) 浙金刑二初字第1号 [(2009) Zhejin the Second Criminal Court First Trial. No. 1]; (2010) 浙刑二终字第7号 [(2010) Zhe the Second Criminal Court Second Trial. No. 27].

  170. 170.

    高晓松 [Gao Xiaosong] (2011) 东刑初字第438号 [(2011) East Destrict the Second Criminal Court First Trial. No. 438].

  171. 171.

    李启铭 [LI Qiming] (2010) 河望刑初第10号 [Hewang Criminal Trial. No. 10, 2010].

  172. 172.

    许霆案 [The Case of XU Ting], (2007) 穗中法刑二重字第196号 [Hui Intermediate Court The Second Criminal Court Second Trial No. 196, 2007; (2008) 穗中法刑二重字第2号 [Hui Intermediate Court The Second Criminal Court Second Trial No. 2 2008], (2008) 穗法高刑重审字第 197 号 [Hui Intermediate Court The Second Criminal Court Second Trial No. 2 2008], available at: 广州审判网 [Guangzhou Judgement Net]. http://www.gzcourt.gov.cn/cpws/wsjs/ (Last visited: January 17th, 2024).

  173. 173.

    药家鑫 [Yao Jiaxin An] [The Case of Yao Jiaxin], available at:   http://baike.so.com/doc/7016976-7239865.html; 药家鑫 [Yao Jiaxin], (2011) 西刑一初字第68号 [(2011 Xi the First Criminal Court First Trial. No. 68).

  174. 174.

    李昌奎 [Li Changkui] (2010) 昭中刑一初字第52号 [(2010) Zhao intermediate Criminal Court First Trial. No. 52; (2010) 云高法终字第1314号 [(2010 Yun High Court Second Trial No. 1314).

  175. 175.

    《中华人民共和国刑法》 [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China], Order No. 83, 14 March 1997, Article 5.

  176. 176.

    This number includes the 1997 Criminal Law and the 7 Amendments to the Criminal Law, which adopted from 1999 to 2009.

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Huang, G. (2024). General Views on Criminal Punishment in China. In: On the Alternative Punishment to the Death Penalty in China. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1627-2_2

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