Abstract
English language and Roman script have a ubiquitous presence in the literary scape of Northeast India today. English has emerged as the new lingua franca, and many local languages are currently written with orthographies formulated with the Roman script. Their introduction to the region was through the implementation of colonial policies, especially those concerning the education of ‘natives’ after the treaty of Yandabo in 1826. This paper looks at a colonial educational experiment carried out in the former state of Manipur in the 1830s, and if successful, it was meant to be replicated in other princely states and frontier regions of the British empire. The chapter argues that the experiment was to establish a language and script hegemony in the state by adopting Macaulay’s downward filtration approach in British India. It was to specifically educate the minor raja of Manipur with European disciplines, English language, and Roman script, to emancipate him from the Brahmanical orthodoxy and mould him like Peter the Great of Russia, who was oriental yet an enlightened ruler. Like the Russian czar, the Raja was expected to carry out reforms in the state, sharing the burden of civilising his subjects and other neighbouring tribes with the colonial administration. The chapter will evince the contentious and entangled history of the English language, Roman script, and colonial education in Manipur. It will also contribute to the burgeoning research on colonial education in princely states and argue that despite ‘indirect rule’, the colonial state did not leave most cultural aspects of colonised societies untouched, leaving ineffaceable cultural legacies.
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Notes
- 1.
Naorem, Taming the rude and barbaric tongues.
- 2.
- 3.
Devi, Development of Education, 8.
- 4.
Adams’s Report on Vernacular Education in Bengal and Behar, Submitted to the Government in 1835, 1836 and 1838 (Calcutta: The Home Secretariat Press, 1868).
- 5.
The Calcutta Christian Observer (CCO), Vol. IV (January to December, 1835), 264–487.
- 6.
The CCO, Vol. IV, 264–487.
- 7.
The CCO, Vol. IV, 264–487.
- 8.
- 9.
The C.C.O., Vol. IV, 264–487.
- 10.
The C.C.O., Vol. IV, 264–487.
- 11.
The C.C.O., Vol. IV, 264–487.
- 12.
The C.C.O., Vol. IV, 264–487.
- 13.
The C.C.O., Vol. IV, 264–487.
- 14.
For example, The Chinese Repository, Vol. V, (From May 1836 to April 1837), Kraus Reprint Ltd., 212–217.
- 15.
The Chinese Repository, Vol. V, 214.
- 16.
The Chinese Repository, Vol. V, 215.
- 17.
The Calcutta Christian Observer, Vol. V (January to December 1836) Calcutta, 111–119.
- 18.
The CCO, Vol. V., 111–112.
- 19.
The CCO, Vol. V, 113. On 27th October 1835, Harish Chandra, the royal tutor wrote a letter to inform the government that the young Raja and the two sons of the Regent commenced their English studies on 26th October. He also further wrote that he discussed the building of a proper school-room and that the Regent promised to fund the building of the school-room for conducting proper education. On 3rd November 1835, he reported that the Raja was making good progress, and he attended school every day except for Sunday between 12 to 3 pm (pp. 113–114). He further wrote that the young Raja started learning the Roman characters and he enjoys reading and looking at the pictures in the books. He found the older sons of the Regent very perceptive in learning the English language and they easily mastered the Roman alphabet and numerals. He wanted to expand his work by teaching other students, but he admitted that he was waiting for Captain Gordon’s approval. On November 15th, he wrote about the tremendous progress made by him in educating the Raja, who learnt the entire Roman alphabet and was highly motivated to attend his lessons. He even wrote that the Raja’s servants also began learning the English language and the letters after listening to his recitation of the alphabet every day. The Raja even visited his residence several times to look at his books, maps, globes, and microscope, which he found very fascinating. The Regent had also requested the appointment of a second teacher to cope with the increasing need for educating the young boys of the royal family (p. 116). Gordon instead suggested to him to train one of the local pundits to learn the English language, so that he can serve as the second teacher for teaching other students (p. 116).
- 20.
The Calcutta Christian Observer, Vol. VI, “Education of the Young Raja of Manipur,” (January to December 1837), 252. Harish Chandra further wrote on 25th March 1837 about his progress in educating more than 30 boys at one time in his school. The students were, by 1837 reading the 3rd and 4th Nos. Reader Clift’s Geography and English grammar. Captain Gordon also introduced two young girls to the tutor to teach them English. He wrote that even the young Raja was happy to see the two young girls learning English. One of the girls was a daughter of a local Bamon, and another was the daughter of Kot Havaldar of Captain Gordon’s guard. Another schoolhouse was built by the Political Agent to conduct classes for the increasing number of students in the compound of the tutor. He also realized that it was urgent to acquire more copies of books necessary for teaching as the number of students increased every month.
- 21.
The CCO, Vol. VI, 39–42.
- 22.
The CCO, Vol. VI, 39.
- 23.
McCulloch (1859), 9.
- 24.
McCulloch, Account of the Valley, 40.
- 25.
Teresa Segura-Garcia.
- 26.
See Annual Administrative Report of the Munnipoor Agency (AARMA) for the year ending 30th June, 1873, (Calcutta: Records of the Government of India, Foreign Department Press, 1874), 11. In 1873, Dr Brown, the Political Agent reported that the subject of education in the state of Manipur had not been attended to by the local rulers and even by the Indian government. He argued that the locals were least concerned with the issue of English education. A school was established by the acting Political Agent-General Nuthall in February 1872, and it was aided by a generous grant of books and other materials from the Bengal government. Dr Brown heard that the school was not functioning well, and he visited the school for a surprise inspection and found that it was well attended. A total number of 11 students had initially enrolled in the school, and 87 were present in the school when he visited for inspection. He commented that there was a total of 5 classes with 4 teachers, and the students were taught the Bengali language, to translate Meetei into Bengali, and vice versa. The students were charged a small fee of two annas a month. He noted that these students once they completed their primary education, can travel to British India to complete their higher education, and later return to the state to work for the Political Agency as clerks. The teaching of Bengali along with English to these students clearly shows the actual objective of these schools set up and funded by the colonial administration.
- 27.
MSA, AARMA, for the year ending 30th June, 1873–74 (Calcutta, Records of the Government of India, Foreign Department Press, 1875), 18.
- 28.
MSA, AARMA, for the year 1877–78, No. 199, dated Manipur, 10th August 1878 (Calcutta: Records of the Government of India, Foreign Department, 1879), 12. He claimed that there was only one school in the capital, with 50 and 60 boys, and at that moment there wasn’t any need for building another school since locals were not interested in educating their children. He claimed that few men were able to read and write English, and he met one Bamon by the name of Gokul Thakoor who studied in the school set up by Captain Gordon. Otherwise, he argued education has certainly retrograded in the state instead of advancing since an English school was established in the state 40 years ago which also included female students.
- 29.
MSA, AARMA, for the year 1878–79, dated Manipur, 15th October 1879 (Calcutta: Records of the Government of India, Foreign Department, 1880), 21.
- 30.
Johnstone (1896), 43.
- 31.
Johnstone, My Experience in Manipur, 144. His plans to establish English school in the state was objected to by the Durbar, but Johnstone stressed to the Durbar that if their subjects learn English would eventually lead to the establishment of better administration of justice and a gradual sweeping away of abuses. After much persuasion, he was able to gain the consent of the Maharaja to build an English school in 1885 in the state, and he wrote that his school will revolutionize the administration of the state. With the help of Thangal General, he established the historic Johnstone Middle English School in the residency compound. However, as E. W. Dun argued in the Gazetteer of Manipur in 1886, education in the state remained very poor and can be dismissed in a very few words. He argued that Manipuris prefer to remain ignorant, their highest officials remained illiterate and they are not ashamed of their ignorance. Also see E. W. Dun, Gazetteer of Manipur (Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1886), 26.
- 32.
MSA, R-1/S-A/29, Notification dated 14th September 1891, written to H. Collett, Major General Commanding Manipur Field Force, No.1 Dairy of Major H. Sr. P. Maxwell, Political Agent, Manipur from the 13th to the 19th September 1891. In the last paragraph of the Proclamation dated Shimla, the 21st of August 1891, issued by the order of the Governor-General in Council, it was noted that the Governor-General in council would make known hereafter the name of the person selected to rule Manipur state. It was notified in the proclamation that the Governor-General in Council has been pleased to select the minor Chura Chand, son of Chowbi Yaima and the great-grandson of the late Nar Singh, Raja of Manipur, to be the Raja of the State of Manipur, and to order that during the Raja’s minority the administration of the state to be conducted by the Political Agent.
- 33.
Ibid.
- 34.
MSA, R-1/S-A/29, Dairy of Lieutenant-Col H. St. P. Maxwell, Political Agent in Manipur and Superintendent of the State, 1896, for the week ending Saturday 2nd March 1895.
- 35.
MSA, R-1/S-A/29, Memo no 1003, dated Manipur, 14th March, 1895, from the Political Agent and Superintendent of the State to the Secretary to the Chief Commissioner of Assam.
- 36.
MSA, R-1/S-A/29, Memo no 239, dated 5th July, week ending Saturday 29thJune 1895. Maxwell was very pleased with the decision to send the young Raja to Ajmer for his education, and he was also relieved that the proposals of the government have been willingly accepted by all concerned (Memo no. 292, Week ending, sat, 13th July 1895). Between 8 and 13th July 1895, Maxwell made all the arrangement for the departure of the Raja and his half-brother to Ajmer. On 15th July, they left for Calcutta and Ajmer with an entourage which consisted of 2 Bamon cooks, 1 personal servant each for the Raja and his half-brother, 1 interpreter and several attendants. They were also accompanied by the Raja’s grandfather with two servants who will also perform a pilgrimage to Brindavan. Lt. Goodenough, the Deputy Political Agent and a small armed contingent accompanied the Raja to escort him to Ajmer (Memo no. 293, Week ending the 20th July, 1895, dated Manipur, 23rd July, 1895).
- 37.
Assam State Archives (ASA), Lib/R007/S4/99, John Shakespeare, Manipur under British Management, 1891–1907 (Shillong: Eastern Bengal and Assam Secretariat Printing Office, 1907), 2.
- 38.
NAI, New Delhi, Progs., Nos 35–43, September 1902, Foreign, External, 1902–09, Appointment of Captain J. R. Nuttall, 44th Gurkha rifles, as tutor to the minor Raja of Manipur.
- 39.
Braudel (1994).
- 40.
Patterson (1997).
- 41.
Patterson, Inventing Western, Chapter 4, 87–116. Also see Haynes and Christopher (2008).
- 42.
MSA, R-1/S-A/29, Memo no. 211, dated 15th June 1895.
- 43.
MSA, R-1/S-A/29, Memo no. 449, dated Manipur, 13th October, 1895, Week ending 12th October, 1895.
- 44.
ASA, Shakespeare, Manipur under British Management, 14.
- 45.
MSA, AARMA, 1921–22, 16.
- 46.
MSA, AARMA, 1921–22, 16.
- 47.
MSA, AARMA, 1921–22, 18.
- 48.
- 49.
MSA, AARMA, 1921–22, 1.
- 50.
BL, IOR/L/PS/11/203, p 5141/1921: 5 Oct 1921–18 Jan 1923, Expenses of the two sons of HH the Maharaja of Manipur while in England.
- 51.
Ibid.
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Naorem, D. (2024). Making a ‘Peter the Great’ in an Imperial Frontier: Educating ‘Natives’ and Introducing English Language and Roman Script in Manipur. In: Chakrabarti, A., Chakraborty, G., Chakraborty, A.S. (eds) Indigeneity, Development and Sustainability. Demographic Transformation and Socio-Economic Development, vol 18. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1436-0_17
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