Abstract
The study of archaeology invites a moment of introspection. Situating within a cultural context usually deprives us of our ability to remain objective. To understand archaeology, one should widen the lens and explore its greater connections, delving beneath the superficial to uncover the skeletal structure. The structure can be the zeitgeist or the spirit of the times, or it can be other conceptual frameworks that describe the cognitive patterns of an era. In contemplating archaeology, we may gain not only an understanding but also a serene appreciation with millions of years of history in mind. When we contemplate archaeology, we appreciate its beauty.
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Notes
- 1.
Shen Kuo (沈括, 1031–1095) was a polymathic Chinese scholar-official during the Song dynasty. Renowned for his breadth of knowledge, Shen Kuo made significant contributions to various fields, including astronomy, geography, metallurgy, botany, zoology, mineralogy, art, music, and literature. Perhaps his most notable achievement is his written work, “Dream Pool Essays” (夢溪筆談, Mengxibitan). Within this book, Shen Kuo is credited with the first written description of the magnetic needle compass, which would later revolutionise navigation. He was also the first to recognise the concept of “true north” in geomagnetism.
- 2.
Huang Renyu (黃仁宇, 1818–2000), often known by his English name Ray Huang, was a prominent Chinese-American historian and philosopher, best known for his work in macro history. Huang’s approach to history was characterised by a large scale, global perspective that extended beyond traditional historical timelines.
- 3.
Land reform was a social movement in the history of the People’s Republic of China. Initiated in the late 1940s and continued into the early 1950s, it aimed at redistributing land ownership from the wealthy landlord class to the poor peasantry. This period of drastic social and economic change was marked by the abolition of feudal land ownership and the promotion of agricultural collectivisation.
- 4.
On Protracted War (論持久戰, Lun chijiuzhan) is composed in 1938 and offers a comprehensive analysis of why Mao believed China could outlast Japan in a protracted war. It integrates military strategy with Marxist–Leninist theory, providing an intellectual basis for the strategic shift of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) from quick decisive battles to drawn-out warfare. In the text, Mao propounds his three-stages theory of warfare and provides profound insights into the nature of the war, ultimately envisioning a victory for China.
- 5.
The Thirteen Classics Commentaries and Explanations (十三經注疏, shisanjingzhushu) is an essential collection of ancient Chinese texts that forms the cornerstone of Confucian thought. Compiled during the Qing Dynasty, it contains thirteen of the most significant works in Confucian philosophy, each accompanied by detailed commentaries and explanations. This compilation includes renowned texts such as the “Analects of Confucius”, the “Book of Rites”, and the “Book of Changes”, among others. The commentaries and explanations accompanying each classic provide insights into their complex teachings, making the texts more accessible to scholars and students alike. This compilation served as the principal curriculum for Chinese scholars for centuries, shaping the intellectual and moral character of Chinese society.
- 6.
Theisolationist policy (閉關鎖國, biguansuoguo) was a key feature of China’s Qing dynasty (1644–1911). It implied a restrictive and defensive stance against foreign influences and engagements. Initially, the Qing maintained a system of regulated trade, primarily through the Canton System, which limited foreign trade to the city of Canton. However, the policy became increasingly strict, especially after the destructive experiences with opium and the consequent wars with Western powers. The rationale behind this policy was to maintain social stability, protect traditional Chinese culture, and resist what was perceived as harmful foreign influences. Despite these intentions, many historians argue that this approach ultimately hindered China’s technological and economic development, leaving it vulnerable to exploitation during the era of Western imperialism.
- 7.
Zhang Zai (张载, 1020–1077) was a philosopher during the Song Dynasty in China. He is best known as one of the leading figures of the School of Principle or Rationalistic School, which was part of the larger Confucian philosophical tradition known as Neo-Confucianism. Zhang Zai’s most influential work, the Zhengmeng (正蒙 or “Correcting Youthful Ignorance”), sought to integrate elements of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. His philosophy placed a strong emphasis on the moral cultivation of the individual and the recognition of the interconnectedness of all things, encapsulated in his concept of Qi (气)—the vital energy or material force that pervades the universe.
- 8.
Jiang Tingfu (蒋廷黻, 1895–1965) was an important Chinese historian, diplomat, and politician during the twentieth century.He is best known for his work in modern Chinese history and his involvement in the Chinese government during a turbulent period of the country’s history.Jiang was educated both in China and abroad. He studied history at Peking University before going on to Harvard University in the United States, where he obtained his master’s degree. He later returned to China and served as a professor at Peking University. In addition to his academic work, Jiang was deeply involved in politics. He served as a diplomat for the Republic of China (ROC) during World War II and was the ROC’s representative to the United Nations. Later in his career, he also served as the Minister of Education and the Minister of Foreign Affairs for the ROC.
- 9.
Wang Shu (王澍, 1963–) is a renowned Chinese architect who is recognised for his unique approach to architecture that combines traditional Chinese design principles with modern techniques. In 2012, he became the first Chinese citizen to receive the Pritzker Architecture Prize. Wang’s works are known for their ecological sensibility, innovative use of recycled materials, and respect for the cultural and historical context in which they are located. Among his notable works is the Ningbo History Museum, which utilises a mix of recycled bricks from destroyed traditional buildings and new materials in its construction, thus symbolising a bridge between the past and present.
- 10.
The Great Leap Forward (大躍進, Da Yue Jin) was an economic and social campaign initiated by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) from 1958 to 1962. Led by Chairman Mao Zedong, it aimed to rapidly transform China’s agrarian economy into an industrialised, socialist society through rapid industrialisation and collectivisation. The campaign, however, resulted in widespread economic disruption and is widely believed to have led to the deadliest famine in human history, known as the Great Chinese Famine, during which millions of people died. The Great Leap Forward is considered one of the most significant and catastrophic events in the history of the People’s Republic of China.
- 11.
Lin Yifu (林毅夫, 1952–) is an eminent Chinese economist celebrated for his influential work on development economics. Lin is particularly noted for his advocacy of the New Structural Economics theory, which posits that developing countries can achieve rapid and sustainable growth by tapping into the advantages of their backwardness, particularly in manufacturing. This approach breaks with the traditional neoliberal advice for these countries to liberalise their economies and adopt advanced technology and industries. Over his distinguished career, Lin has held numerous prestigious positions, including serving as the Chief Economist of the World Bank from 2008 to 2012—the first individual from a developing country to hold this position. He has also been a professor at Peking University and the founding director of the China Centre for Economic Research.
- 12.
Jinshixue 金石學: Literally translated as “Metal and Stone Studies”, it is a traditional Chinese field of study and an aspect of Sinology focusing on the interpretation of ancient inscriptions on artefacts made of metal (mostly bronze) and stone. The discipline involves the deciphering, authentication, and study of these inscriptions, which include scripts, texts, and images. It has been instrumental in reconstructing the history of Chinese characters, contributing significantly to our understanding of ancient Chinese history, culture, and art. Its development has also been crucial in the preservation of historical relics and the promotion of Chinese cultural heritage.
- 13.
This Chinese idiom, 邯鄲學步, comes from a story in the ancient text “Huainanzi”. Handan was the capital of the state of Zhao during the Warring States period and was renowned for its citizens’ elegant and refined way of walking. The idiom tells the story of a man who tried to imitate this walk but failed, ending up forgetting his original way of walking and couldn’t walk at all. The term is used metaphorically to describe a situation where someone attempts to imitate others blindly, resulting in failure and the loss of their original skills or identity.
- 14.
The term “literary mind” (文心, wenxin) originates from classical Chinese literature and is often used to refer to a passion for literature, an understanding of culture, or a sense of literary taste. The term embodies a deep appreciation for the art of writing and reading and encapsulates the intellectual and emotional essence that drives the creation and interpretation of literature.
- 15.
Feng Youlan (馮友蘭, 1895–1990) was one of the most prominent philosophers of twentieth-century China. He made significant contributions to the dissemination and modern interpretation of classical Chinese philosophy. Feng Youlan is best known for his two-volume work, A History of Chinese Philosophy, which provides a comprehensive overview of the development of Chinese philosophical thought from ancient times through the period of his own activity. He is also known for creating Neo-Confucianism, a modern reinterpretation of Confucian philosophy that he hoped could provide solutions to the challenges faced by China in the twentieth century.
- 16.
Tu Youyou (屠呦呦, 1930–) is a Chinese pharmaceutical chemist and malariologist, recognised for her key contributions to the discovery of artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin. These compounds, derived from the sweet wormwood plant, have been instrumental in significantly reducing the mortality rate of Malaria patients. In recognition of her revolutionary work, Tu Youyou was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015, becoming the first Chinese woman to receive a Nobel Prize.
- 17.
Hu Shi (胡適, 1891–1962) was a renowned Chinese philosopher, essayist, and diplomat, and one of the key figures in the New Culture Movement of the early twentieth century in China. He studied at Cornell University and later at Columbia University under the guidance of John Dewey, becoming a prominent advocate for pragmatism. Hu is best known for his advocacy of the vernacular language (Baihua) in Chinese literature to replace classical Chinese, making literature more accessible to the common people. His philosophical and literary ideas had a profound influence on Chinese intellectuals during the May Fourth Movement. Hu also served as the Republic of China’s Ambassador to the United States from 1938 to 1942.
- 18.
Wang Guowei (王國維, 1877–1927) was a distinguished Chinese scholar, writer, and poet. His works cover a wide range of disciplines, including literature, history, philosophy, and aesthetics, making him one of the most versatile and influential scholars of his time. He is particularly well-known for his theories on drama and poetry, as well as his study of ancient Chinese inscriptions and artefacts (jishixue). Wang’s in-depth analyses of ancient Chinese culture have had a lasting impact on Chinese academic circles. Tragically, he drowned himself in Kunming Lake at the Summer Palace in Beijing, marking a poignant end to his brilliant scholarly career.
- 19.
Chen Yinque (陳寅恪, 1890–1969) was an esteemed Chinese historian, philologist, and poet. He is celebrated for his deep scholarly works on the history and culture of China, particularly for his unique insights into the Tang Dynasty and the historical period of the Southern Dynasties. Known for his scholarly rigor, Chen pioneered the use of phonetic and textual criticism in his research, bringing an innovative level of depth and detail to the study of Chinese history and literature. Despite the political turmoil and personal tribulations he experienced, including the loss of his teaching position during the Anti-Rightist Campaign, his remarkable contributions to Chinese academia are recognised and honoured to this day.
- 20.
Wu Zhihui (吳稚暉, 1865–1953) was a renowned Chinese scholar, educationalist, and revolutionary leader. He is recognised as one of the key figures in the Chinese Anarchist movement and an important promoter of educational reform in the early twentieth century. He was instrumental in advancing phonetic script and modernising the Chinese language. A fervent advocate for the abolition of the monarchy, Wu played a significant role in the Xinhai Revolution that resulted in the establishment of the Republic of China. He also served as the Minister of Education and later the Speaker of the House of Representatives during the early years of the Republic of China.
- 21.
Lu Xun (魯迅, 1881–1936), born as Zhou Shuren, was one of the most influential writers in modern Chinese literature. Regarded as the father of modern Chinese literature, he is best known for his biting satire and sharp critique of the societal conditions of early twentieth-century China. His pioneering work often portrayed the harsh realities of life and the injustices suffered by ordinary people in a period marked by political instability and societal change. His most famous works include the short story collections Call to Arms (吶喊, nahan) and Wandering (徬徨, panghuang). Lu Xun’s works continue to be highly influential in Chinese literary studies and he is frequently referenced in discussions about China’s cultural and societal development.
- 22.
Zhang Taiyan (章太炎, 1868–1936), also known as Zhang Binglin, was a prominent Chinese philologist, historian, and political activist. A prolific scholar, he made significant contributions to Chinese textual criticism, historiography, and philosophy. His erudite works and incisive comments on classical texts have been influential in shaping the field of Chinese studies. Politically, Zhang Taiyan was an integral part of the anti-Qing movement, and he played a significant role in the ideological foundation of both the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) and the Chinese Communist Party. His intellectual legacy remains influential in Chinese academic and cultural spheres.
- 23.
Liu Shipei (劉師培, 1884–1919) was a Chinese philologist, historian, and political thinker during the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. He is widely recognised for his substantial contributions to the studies of ancient Chinese history, literature, and linguistics. As a political figure, Liu was a prominent conservative scholar who defended the traditional Chinese values and institutions against the reformist and revolutionary ideas of his time. His reactionary views and his advocacy for monarchism, however, made him a controversial figure in the political turbulence of early twentieth century China. Despite this, his scholarly work is still highly respected in the field of Chinese studies.
- 24.
Li Ji (李濟, 1896–1979) was a renowned Chinese archaeologist and anthropologist, particularly noted for his significant contributions to the field of Chinese Neolithic archaeology. Born in Guangdong, China, he received his doctoral degree in anthropology from Harvard University in the United States. He later returned to China and devoted his career to archaeological research, working extensively on early Chinese cultures. Li was instrumental in the establishment of archaeology as a modern discipline in China and participated in several groundbreaking excavations, including the one at the Yangshao Culture site. His works profoundly influenced later scholars like K.C. Chang.
- 25.
Liang Siyong (梁思永, 1908–1978) was one of the pioneering figures in modern Chinese archaeology. Born in Japan to the renowned architect Liang Sicheng and his first wife Guan Jingqing, he grew up in a family rich in intellectual and artistic heritage. After completing his early education in China, he studied architecture at the University of Pennsylvania in the United States, but later shifted his focus to archaeology under the influence of his father’s friend, the eminent scholar Hu Shi. Liang Siyong returned to China in the 1930s and embarked on a career in archaeology, making significant contributions to the study of Chinese Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures. He is perhaps best known for his role in directing the excavation of the Han dynasty tombs at Mawangdui. His work in the field of archaeology, like his father’s in architecture, played a vital part in the modernisation of Chinese cultural studies.
- 26.
WuJinDing (吳金鼎, 1901–1948) was a Chinese archaeologist and did his PhD at University of London. He discovered Chengziya site of Longshan Culture. He has done extensive fieldwork, particularly in Shandong Province.
- 27.
Xia Nai (夏鼐, 1910–1985) was a highly influential Chinese archaeologist and a key figure in the development of modern Chinese archaeology. Xia was educated in Egyptology at University College London in the 1930s. He returned to China and became a crucial proponent of scientific archaeological method, influenced by his Western training. His work significantly improved the precision and accuracy of archaeological practices in China, particularly in terms of field methodology and stratigraphy.
- 28.
Su Bingqi (蘇秉琦, 1909–1997) was one of the most respected Chinese archaeologists who played a pivotal role in the development of these academic disciplines in China. Throughout his illustrious career, Su contributed significant insights into the understanding of ancient Chinese cultures. His work focused on the Neolithic Age and early Chinese dynasties, and he is often credited for his role in promoting multidisciplinary approaches to archaeological research. His work on regional typology remains highly influential among many archaeologists today in China.
- 29.
The Zuozhuan (左傳), also known as the “Commentary of Zuo”, is a Chinese historical text and commentary on the ancient Chinese chronicle Spring and Autumn Annals (春秋, Chunqiu). Believed to have been compiled by Zuo Qiuming (左丘明) during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), the Zuozhuan provides a more detailed account of events and interpretations compared to the brief, succinct entries of the Annals. It is an important source for understanding the political, social, and ethical values of the Spring and Autumn period in China, as well as for appreciating the development of historical and narrative writing in classical Chinese literature.
- 30.
Gong Zizhen (龔自珍, 1792–1841) was a Chinese scholar, poet, and reformist of the late Qing Dynasty. Born into a prestigious family in Hangzhou, Gong Zizhen was a prodigy who began writing poetry at an early age. His literary works, renowned for their innovative style and profound insight, reflected a deep concern for his country and people. Though his official career was marred by political difficulties, he made significant contributions to the intellectual movement of the time. One of his most famous poems, “Improvised Poem Upon the State of the Empire” (憂患詩, youhuanshi), expressed a fervent call for reform and modernisation in the face of China’s decline. Despite his efforts, his reformist ideas were not fully realised during his lifetime.
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Chen, S. (2024). Understanding Archaeology. In: Exploring Archaeology. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1135-2_1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1135-2_1
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