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The New Zealand Outer Space and High-Altitude Activities Act 2017 and the Statutory Review: A Dance Between International and Domestic Law

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Ascending to Space

Part of the book series: Space Law and Policy ((SLP))

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Abstract

Since the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik 1, the first human-made space object, in October 1957, space-related technologies have continued to develop at a remarkable pace. The space environment is now very different from what it was in 1957 when the space treaties were being negotiated. Space has become a multi-billion-dollar global industry and is of huge strategic importance. Satellites enable the provision of critical everyday services and infrastructure, including banking, transportation, electricity, telecommunications, navigation and defence, to name but a few. This chapter examines illustrates some of the legal challenges that arise with modern space technologies for both international and domestic law by reference to New Zealand’s Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Act 2017 and its recent review.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See for example Santamaría, Germán. (2021, July 22). What is New Space? Solar MEMS Technologies. https://www.solar-mems.com/what-is-new-space

  2. 2.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1966). Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html

  3. 3.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1967). Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introrescueagreement.html

  4. 4.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1972). Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introliability-convention.html

  5. 5.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1976). Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introregistration-convention.html

  6. 6.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1979). Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/intromoon-agreement.html

  7. 7.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (2023). Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/topics/long-term-sustainability-of-outer-space-activities.html

  8. 8.

    See New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Trade. (2023). New Zealand Treaties Online. https://www.treaties.mfat.govt.nz/

  9. 9.

    See, for example, Myers, Catherine. (2017, January 27). To Boldly Go Where No Treaty Had Gone Before. Inside Science. https://www.insidescience.org/news/boldly-go-where-no-treaty-had-gone

  10. 10.

    These concerns are reflected in the 1962 Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/principles/legal-principles.html

  11. 11.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1966). Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space.

  12. 12.

    UN Office of Disarmament Affairs. (1967). Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. treaties.unoda.org/t/outer_space; UN Treaty Collection. (1967). Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. https://treaties.un.org/pages/showdetails.aspx?objid=0800000280128cbd.

  13. 13.

    Article II.

  14. 14.

    Article IV.

  15. 15.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1972). Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 25. https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_26_2777E.pdf

  16. 16.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1972). Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, p. 25. https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_26_2777E.pdf

  17. 17.

    Article V.

  18. 18.

    Articles XIV and XV.

  19. 19.

    UN Treaty Collection. (1976). Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, https://treaties.un.org/Pages/showDetails.aspx?objid%20=%2008000002800361b4

  20. 20.

    Articles II, III and IV.

  21. 21.

    Article II.2.

  22. 22.

    Outer Space Treaty, Article VIII.

  23. 23.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1967). Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space. https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_22_2345E.pdf

  24. 24.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1967). Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 6. https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_22_2345E.pdf

  25. 25.

    Ibid., 6–7. https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_22_2345E.pdf

  26. 26.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (2023). Status of International Agreements relating to Activities in Outer Space. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/status/index.html

  27. 27.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1979). Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 77–80. https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_34_68E.pdf

  28. 28.

    Ibid., 79.

  29. 29.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (2022). UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: Membership Evolution. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/members/evolution.html

  30. 30.

    New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment. New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment. (n.d.). Modelling sustainable space and Earth environments. https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/space/new-zealand-space-policy-review-consultation/modelling-sustainable-space-and-earth-environments

  31. 31.

    New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment. (2023, May). National Space Policy. https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/space/national-space-policy

  32. 32.

    New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. (2017). New Zealand Legislation. Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Act 2017. https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2017/0029/latest/DLM6966275.html

  33. 33.

    Section 3.

  34. 34.

    Sections 7 and 23.

  35. 35.

    Sections 15 and 31.

  36. 36.

    Section 38.

  37. 37.

    Section 45.

  38. 38.

    Sections 9, 17, 40 and 47.

  39. 39.

    Sections 26, 34, 41 and 48.

  40. 40.

    New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment. (2023, May 18). Permits and licences for space activities. https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/space/permits-and-licences-for-space-activities

  41. 41.

    Section 88.

  42. 42.

    New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. (2017). New Zealand Legislation. Outer Space and High-altitude Activities (Definition of High-altitude Vehicle) Regulations 2017. https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2017/0029/latest/DLM6966275.html; Outer Space and High-altitude Activities (Licences and Permits) Regulations 2017. https://www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/public/2017/0250/latest/DLM7364101.html.New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. (2017). New Zealand Legislation. Outer Space and High-altitude Activities (Definition of High-altitude Vehicle) Regulations 2017. https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2017/0029/latest/DLM6966275.html; Outer Space and High-altitude Activities (Licences and Permits) Regulations 2017. https://www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/public/2017/0250/latest/DLM7364101.html

  43. 43.

    New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment. (2022). Statutory Review of the Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Act 2017. https://www.parliament.nz/resource/en-NZ/PAP_122789/69be1c790012398b63ffa1fa354494434db50ca0

  44. 44.

    A list of submitters can be found at p. 12.

  45. 45.

    Ibid., 14.

  46. 46.

    A summary of the key findings and recommendations is set out in part two of the report.

  47. 47.

    Rocket Lab. (2023). https://www.rocketlabusa.com/

  48. 48.

    Dawn Aerospace. (2023). Introducing the Dawn Mk-II Aurora. https://www.dawnaerospace.com/spacelaunch

  49. 49.

    Kea Aerospace. (2023). https://www.keaaerospace.com/

  50. 50.

    New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment. (2022). Statutory Review of the Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Act 2017, 19–21.

  51. 51.

    However, Section 4 of the Act defines the lower limit of high altitude, which is the point at which a high-altitude licence is required. This is an altitude that is the higher of either flight level 600 or the highest upper limit of controlled airspace under the Civil Aviation Act 1990.

  52. 52.

    International Civil Aviation Organization. (1944). Convention on International Civil Aviation. https://www.icao.int/publications/Documents/7300_cons.pdf (also known as Chicago Convention).

  53. 53.

    A working group on the issue has been set up in the Legal Sub-committee. UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (n.d.). Working Group on the Definition and Delimitation of Outer Space of the Legal Subcommittee. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/lsc/ddos/index.html, and the attached report sets out some of the differences in approach.

  54. 54.

    Outer Space and High-altitude Activities (Definition of High-altitude Vehicle) Regulations 2017.

  55. 55.

    Federal Register of Legislation, Australia. (2018). Space (Launches and Returns) Act 2018. https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2021C00394

  56. 56.

    Space Act 2016 (Denmark), Federal Law no 12 of 2019 on the Regulation of the Space Sector (UAE).

  57. 57.

    New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment. (2022). Statutory Review of the Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Act 2017, 16.

  58. 58.

    This follows from Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty that gives States Parties international responsibility for national activities in outer space and for assuring they are carried out in conformity with the provisions of the treaty.

  59. 59.

    International Organization for Standardization. (2023). ISO 24113:2019. Space systems – Space debris mitigation requirements. https://www.iso.org/standard/72383.html; NASA. (n.d.). European Space Agency. (n.d.). Mitigating space debris generation. https://www.esa.int/Space_Safety/Space_Debris/Mitigating_space_debris_generation; Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee. (2020, March 1). IADC Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines. https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/iadc-space-debris-guidelines-revision-2.pdf

  60. 60.

    New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. (2017). New Zealand Legislation. Outer Space and High-altitude Activities (Licences and Permits) Regulations 2017. https://www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/public/2017/0250/latest/DLM7364101.html

  61. 61.

    UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. (2018, June 27). Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities. https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2018/aac_1052018crp/aac_1052018crp_20_0_html/AC105_2018_CRP20E.pdf

  62. 62.

    UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. (2010). Terms of reference and methods of work of the Working Group on the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee: working paper submitted by the Chair of the Working Group. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/693562?ln=en

  63. 63.

    Rocket Lab. (n.d.). Capstone Mission. https://www.rocketlabusa.com/missions/lunar

  64. 64.

    COSPAR. (n.d.). Planetary Protection Policy. https://cosparhq.cnes.fr/assets/uploads/2021/01/Research_Outreach_PPP_2020.pdf

  65. 65.

    COSPAR. (2011, March 24). COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy. https://science.nasa.gov/science-red/s3fs-public/atoms/files/COSPAR_Planetary_Protection_Policy_v3-24-11.pdf

  66. 66.

    Satellite Applications Catapult (n.d.). In-Space Services – A Major Opportunity for the UK. Active Debris Removal. https://issuu.com/satappscatapult/docs/in-space_services-_a_major_opportunity_for_the_uk_/s/10491735

  67. 67.

    Rocket Lab. (2023). Upcoming Missions. https://www.rocketlabusa.com/missions/upcoming-missions

  68. 68.

    New Zealand Space Agency. (2023, May 10). Active Debris Removal and On-Orbit Servicing Missions: Operational Policy. https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/26611-active-debris-removal-and-on-orbit-servicing-operational-policy-pdf

  69. 69.

    Ibid., 30.

  70. 70.

    New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment. (2023). Approved payloads and other licences. https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/space/permits-and-licences-for-space-activities/payloads-approved-for-launch/approved-payloads-and-other-licences

  71. 71.

    UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. (2017, June 8). The ‘Dark and quiet skies’ proposal as an initiative … for protecting the environmental observing conditions for large astronomical observatories and world citizens. https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/aac_1052017crp/aac_1052017crp_24_0_html/AC105_2017CRP24E.pdf

  72. 72.

    UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. (2021, April 19). Recommendation to Keep Dark and Quiet Skies for Science and Society. https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2021/aac_105c_12021crp/aac_105c_12021crp_17_0_html/AC105_C1_2021_CRP17E.pdf

  73. 73.

    UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. (2001, December 18). Obtrusive space advertising and astronomical research. Background paper by the International Astronomical Union. https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/reports/ac105/AC105_777E.pdf

  74. 74.

    Office of the Law Revision Counsel. United States Code. (n.d.). Chapter 509 – Commercial Space Launch Activities. https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title51/subtitle5/chapter509&edition=prelim

  75. 75.

    Wall, Mike. (2020, May 16). Japanese satellite filled with ‘shooting star’ pellets won’t spawn artificial meteor shower after all. Space.com. https://www.space.com/japan-shooting-star-satellite-artificial-meteor-shower-glitch.html

  76. 76.

    UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. (2021, April 19). Recommendation to Keep Dark and Quiet Skies for Science and Society. https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2021/aac_105c_12021crp/aac_105c_12021crp_17_0_html/AC105_C1_2021_CRP17E.pdf, 30.

  77. 77.

    New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment. (2023, July 31). Payloads approved for launch. https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/space/permits-and-licences-for-space-activities/payloads-approved-for-launch

  78. 78.

    New Zealand Space Agency. (n.d.). Payloads of a size less than 1 U: Operational Policy. https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/6985-payloads-of-a-size-less-than-1u-operational-policy

  79. 79.

    NASA. (n.d.). The Artemis Accords: Principles for a Safe, Peaceful, and Prosperous Future. https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html

  80. 80.

    Artemis Accords. (2020, October 13). https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/img/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf

  81. 81.

    Ibid., Article I.

  82. 82.

    Ibid.

  83. 83.

    There were 13 signatories as of October 2021.

  84. 84.

    UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. (2023, June). Working Group on Legal Aspects of Space Resource Activities. 66 copuos. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/lsc/space-resources/index.html

  85. 85.

    Ibid., 30.

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    Val Sim

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    Maria A. Pozza

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Sim, V. (2024). The New Zealand Outer Space and High-Altitude Activities Act 2017 and the Statutory Review: A Dance Between International and Domestic Law. In: Pozza, M.A. (eds) Ascending to Space. Space Law and Policy. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-0714-0_7

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