Skip to main content

Macro Politics: The Cause of Diverse Opportunities and Constraints

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
NGOs, Policy Networks and Political Opportunities in Hybrid Regimes

Part of the book series: Studies in Iranian Politics ((STIRPO))

  • 183 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter uses two theories from the literatures of political science and public policy in order to create a theoretical framework that will firm the ground for explaining the agency of NGOs in the next chapters. Political opportunity structure is the theory that identifies three factors which cause shift or stability in the macro politics of a country. Here, certain linkages will be established between the macro political factors and the structure of policy networks, which outline the environment where NGOs and state confront with one another. In the end, the chapter discusses how in the network environment, the distribution of opportunities and constraints are expected to be diverse for the agency NGOs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Bibliography

  • Aarts, P., & Cavatorta, F. (2013). Civil society in Syria and Iran. In P. Aarts, & F. Cavatorta, Civil society in Syria and Iran: Activism in authoritarian contexts (pp. 1–18). Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bashirieh, H. (1995). Political sociology: The role of political actors in social life. Tehran: Nei Publication.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergh, S. (2012). Introduction: Researching the effects of neoliberal reforms on local governance in the Southern Mediterranean. Mediterranean Politics, 17(3), 303–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergh, S., & Jari, M. (2010). Spaces for change? Decentralization, participation and local governance in the Middle East/North Africa. Journal of Economic and Social Research, 12(1).

    Google Scholar 

  • Birkland, T. A. (2007). Agenda setting in public policy. In F. Fisher, G. J. Miller, & M. S. Sidney (Eds.), Public policy analysis (pp. 63–78). Boca Raton: CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackman, S. (2014). Subculture theory: An historical and contemporary assessment of the concept for understanding deviance. Deviant Behavior, 35, 496–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bobrow, D. B., & Dryzek, J. S. (1987). Policy analysis by design. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brozel, T. A. (1998). Organizing Babylon—On the different conceptions of policy networks. Public Administration, 76(2), 253–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burstein, P. (1991). Policy domains: Organizations, culture, and policy outcomes. Annual Review of Sociology, 17, 327–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burt, R. S. (1997). The contingent value of social capital. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 339–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J. L. (2002). Ideas, politics, and public policy. Annual Review of Sociology, 28, 21–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cobb, R. W., & Elder, C. D. (1972). Participation in American politics: The dynamics of agenda building. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. The American Journal of Sociology, 94, 95–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cragun, R., & Cragun, C. (2006). Introduction to sociology. Tampa: Blacksleet River.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crook, R., & Manor, J. (1998). Democracy and decentralisation in South Asia and West Africa: Participation, accountability and performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, R. A. (1956). A preface to democratic theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dassen, A. (2010). Networks: Structure and action steering in and steering by policy networks. Enschede: CHEPS/UT.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Nooy, W., Mrvar, A., & Batagelj, V. (2005). Exploratory social network analysis with Pajek. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • DiMaggio, P. J., & Powel, W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dowding, K. (1995). Model or metaphor? A critical review of the policy network approach. Political Studies, 43, 136–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duyvendak, J. W., & Giugni, M. G. (1995). Social movement types and policy domain. In H. Kriesi, R. Koopmans, J. W. Duyvendak, & M. G. Giugni (Eds.), New social movements in Western Europe: A comparative analysis (pp. 82–110). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fawcett, P., & Daugbjerg, C. (2012). Explaining governance outcomes: Epistemology, network governance and policy network. Political Studies Review, 10, 195–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foucault, M. (1976). The history of sexuality. New York: Pantheon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, M., Laver, M., & Mair, P. (1995). Representative government in modern Europe. Boston: MC Graw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gamson, W., & Meyer, D. (1996). Framing political opportunity. In D. McAdam, J. McCarthy, & M. Zald (Eds.), Comparative perspectives on social movements: Political opportunities, mobilizing structures, and cultural framings. Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics (pp. 275–290). Cambridge: Cambridge University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society. Outline of the theory of structuration. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, J., & Jasper, J. M. (2009). The social movements reader: Cases and concepts. Sussex: Wiley Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, W. (1989). Pressure groups, politics and democracy in Britain. Hemel Hampstead: Philip Allan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guigni, M. (1998). The other side of the coin: Crossnational similarities between social movements. Mobilization, 3, 89–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hajer, M. (2003). Policy without polity? Policy analysis and the institutional void. Policy Sciences, 36(2), 175–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanf, K., & Scharpf, F. W. (1978). Interorganizational policy making: Limits to coordination and central control. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helco, H. (1978). Issue networks and the executive establishment. In A. King (Ed.), The new American political system (pp. 87–124). Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heydemann, S. (2007, October). Upgrading authoritarianism in the Arab world. The Saban Centre for Middle East Policy, 13. The Brookings Institution.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heywood, A. (1997). Politics. London: Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, M. J. (2009). The public policy process. Harlow: Pearson Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodgson, G. M. (2006). What are institutions? Journal of Economic Issues, XL(1), 1153–1157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howlett, M. (2002). Do networks matter? Linking policy network structure to policy outcomes: Evidence from four Canadian policy sectors 1990–2000. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 35(2), 235–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huntington, S. (1984). Will more countries become democratic? Political Science Quarterly, 99(Summer), 193–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huntington, S. P. (1965). Political development and political decay. World Politics, 17(3), 386–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingraham, H. (1987). Policy implementation through bargaining: Federal grants in AID. Public Policy, 25, 499–526.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, R. J., & Jackson, D. (1993). Contemporary government and politics: Democracy and authoritarianism. Scarborough, ON: Prentice-Hall Canada Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins-Smith, H. G., & Sabatier, P. A. (1994). Evaluating the advocacy coalition framework. Journal of Public Policy, 14(2), 175–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, G., & Schubert, K. (1992). A preliminary ordering of policy network labelling. European Journal of Political Research, 21, 7–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keman, H., & Whiteley, P. (1987). Coping with crisis: Divergent strategies and outcomes. In H. Keman, P. Whiteley, & H. Paloheimo (Eds.), Coping with economic crisis: Alternative responses to economic recession in advanced industrial societies. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenis, P., & Schneider, V. (1991). Policy networks and policy analysis scrutinizing a new analytical toolbox. In B. Marin & R. Mayntz (Eds.), Policy networks. Empirical evidence and theoretical considerations (pp. 25–59). Frankfurt: Campus Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kingdon, J. (1984). Agendas, alternatives, and public policies. Boston: Little, Brown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitschelt, H. (1985). New social movements in West Germany and the United States. Political Power and Social Theory, 5, 273–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitschelt, H. (1986). Political opportunity structures and political protest: Anti-nuclear movements in four democracies. British Journal of Political Science, 16, 57–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klijn, E. H. (1997). Policy networks: An overview. In W. M. Kickert, E. H. Klijn, & J. F. Koppenjan, Managing complex networks: Strategies for the public sector (pp. 14–34). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klijn, E. S. (1996). Analyzing and managing policy processes in complex networks: A theoretical examination of the concept policy network and its problems. Administration and Society, 28(1), 90–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knight, J. (1992). Institutions and social conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Knoepfel, P., Larrue, C., Varone, F., & Hill, M. (2011). Public policy analysis. Bristol: The Policy Press; University of Bristol.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Knoke, D., & Yang, S. (2008). Social network analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Konig, T., & Brauninger, T. (1998). The formation of policy networks: Preferences, institutions and actors’ choices. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 10, 445–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koopmans, R. (1999). Political. Opportunity. Structure. Some splitting to balance the lumping. Sociological Forum, 14(1), 93–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koopmans, R., & Kriesi, H. (1995). Institutional structures and prevailing strategies. In H. Kriesi, R. Koopmans, J. W. Duyvendak, & M. G. Giugni (Eds.), New social movements in Western Europe: A comparative analysis (pp. 26–52). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kriesi, H. (1991). The political opportunity structure of new social movements: Its impact on their mobilization. In J. C. Jenkins & B. Klandermans (Eds.), The politics of social protest (pp. 167–198). London: University of Minnesota Press/UCL Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kriesi, H. (2007). Political context and opportunity. In D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule, & H. Kriesi (Eds.), The Blackwell companion to social movements. Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kriesi, H., Koopmans, R., Duyvendak, J. W., & Guigni, M. J. (1995). New social movements in Western Europe: A comparative analysis. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kubal, T. J. (1998). The presentation of the political self: Culture, mobilization, and the construction of collective action frames. Sociological Quarterly, 39, 539–554.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kulipossa, F. P. (2004). Decentralization and democracy in developing countries: An overview. Development in Practice, 14(6), 768–779.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linder, S. H., & Peters, B. G. (1985). From social theory to policy design. Journal of Public Policy, 4, 237–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maloney, W. A., Jordan, G., & McLaughlin, A. M. (1994). Interest groups and public policy: The insider/outsider model revisited. Journal of Public Policy, 14(1), 17–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • March, J. G., & Olsen, J. P. (1985). Ambiguity and choice in organizations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, D., & Rhodes, R. A. (1992). Policy communities and issue networks. In D. Marsh & R. A. Rhodes (Eds.), Policy networks in British government (pp. 249–268). Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, D., & Smith, M. (2000). Understanding policy networks: Towards a dialectical approach. Political Studies, 48(1), 4–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, N. (1995). Policy communities issue networks and the formulation of Australian higher education policy. Higher Education, 30, 273–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, D. S. (2004). Protest and political opportunities. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 125–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, D. S., & Minkoff, D. C. (2004). Conceptualizing political opportunity. Social Forces, 82(4), 457–1492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, H. T., & Demir, T. (2007). Policy communities. In F. Fischer, J. G. Miller, & M. S. Sidney (Eds.), Handbook of public policy analysis: Theory, politics and methods (pp. 137–146). Boca Raton: CRS Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oslen, J. (2009). Change and continuity: An institutional approach to institutions of democratic government. European Political Science Review, 1(1), 3–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pateman, C. (1970). Participation and democracy in theory. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, J. (1995). Policy networks and European Union policy making: A reply to Kassim. Western European Politics, 18(2), 389–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, J. (2003, July). Policy networks. Political Science Series. Vienna: Institute for Advanced Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porta, D. D., & Diani, M. (1999). Social movements: An introduction. Carlton, VIC: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R. A. (1981). Control and power in central-local government relations. Farnborough: Gower Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R. A. (1986). The national world of local government. London: Allen and Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R. A. (1992). Policy networks in British government. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R. A. (1996). The new governance: Governing without government. Political Studies, 44(4), 652–667.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R. A. (2006). Policy network analysis. In M. Moran, M. Rein, & R. E. Goodin (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of public policy (pp. 425–447). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R. A. (2007). Understanding governance: Ten years on. Organization Studies, 28(08), 1243–1264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R. A., & Marsh, D. (1992). New directions in the study of policy networks. European Journal of Political Research, 21, 181–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, G. (2000). Government, interest groups and policy change. Political Studies, 48(5), 1006–1025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivetti, P. (2013). Co-opting civil society activism in Iran. In P. Aarts & F. Cavatorta (Eds.), Civil society in Syria and Iran: Activism in authoritarian contexts (pp. 187–203). London: Lynne Rienner Publisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rootes, C. A., & College, D. (1999). Political opportunity structures: Promise, problems and prospects. La Lettre de la Maison Française d’Oxford, 10, 75–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rucht, D. (1990). Campaigns, skirmishes and battles: Anti-nuclear movements in the USA, France and West Germany. Industrial Crisis Quarterly, 4, 193–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sabatier, P. A., & Jenkins-Smith, H. C. (1999). The advocacy coalition framework: An assessment. In P. A. Sabatier (Ed.), Theories of the policy process (pp. 117–166). Boulder, CO: Westview.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sartre, J. P. (1946/1977). Existentialism and humanism. Brooklyn: Haskell House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, A. L., & Ingram, H. (1997). Policy design for democracy. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumpeter, J. A. (1947). Capitalism, socialism and democracy. New York: Harper and Bros.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siaroff, A. (1999). Corporatism in 24 industrial democracies: Meaning and measurement. European Journal of Political Research, 36, 175–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, D. A. (2009). Social networks and collective actions. American Journal of Political Science, 53(1), 122–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, B. (1985). Decentralization: The territorial dimension of the state. London: George Allen & Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. J. (1992). From policy community to issue network: Salmonella in eggs and the new politics of food. Public Administration, 69(2), 235–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. J. (1999). The core executive in Britain. Basingstoke: Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Smoke, P. (2001). Overview of decentralization and workshop theme linkage. The Participatory Symposium. New York: UNCDF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorensten, E., & Torfing, J. (2005). The democratic anchorage of governance networks. Scandinavian Political Studies, 28(3), 195–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, W. B., & Greenberg, D. (2000). Agency and social networks: Strategies of action in a social structure of position, opposition, and opportunity. Administrative Science Quarterly, 45(4), 651–678.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tandon, R. (1987). The relationship between NGOs and government. Mimeo paper presented to the Conference on the Promotion of Autonomous Development. New Delhi: PARIA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarrow, S. (1989). Democracy and disorder: Protest and politics in Italy, 1965–1975. Oxford: Clarendon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilly, Ch., & Tarrow, S. (2007). Contentious politics. London: Paradigm Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. H. (1986). Review essay: The theory of structuration. American Journal of Sociology, 4, 969–977.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vráblíková, K. (2014). How context matters? Mobilization, political opportunity structures, and nonelectoral political participation in old and new democracies. Comparative Political Studies, 47(2), 203–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waarden, F. V. (1992). Dimensions and types of policy networks. European Journal of Political Research, 21, 29–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social network analysis: Methods and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wellman, B. (1983). Network analysis: Some basic principles. Sociological Theory, 1, 155–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. H. (2006). The cultural contexts of collective action: Constraints, opportunities, and the symbolic life of social movements. In D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule, & H. Kriesi (Eds.), The Blackwell companion to social movements (pp. 91–115). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, M. (1988). Policy community, policy network and comparative industrial policies. Political Studies, 36(4), 593–612.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Moheimany, M. (2021). Macro Politics: The Cause of Diverse Opportunities and Constraints. In: NGOs, Policy Networks and Political Opportunities in Hybrid Regimes. Studies in Iranian Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6224-6_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics