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A Century of National Humiliation: Threats of Border Areas Fragmentation by the Imperialist Powers

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China's Solution to Its Ethno-national Issues

Part of the book series: China Insights ((CHINAIN))

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Abstract

Ancient Chinese states were typified by variously sized city-states that existed prior to the country’s unification by Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, in 221 BC. In many cases, these were vassal states characterized by the tribute paid to the ruling central dynasty.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Liu Y. Sea and Land: a study of East-West Communication in Medieval Times. Beijing: Press of Peking University, pp. 219–220.

  2. 2.

    Stavrianos (1992): 52.

  3. 3.

    Sun (2003).

  4. 4.

    Shen and Liu (2014): 6.

  5. 5.

    Sun Z. Map Scaling and Territory Formation during the Reigns of Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong, pp. 59–62.

  6. 6.

    Taylor (1995): 35.

  7. 7.

    Ippolito Desider (2004): 238.

  8. 8.

    Taylor (1995): 56.

  9. 9.

    Liang (2012).

  10. 10.

    Turner (2004): 156.

  11. 11.

    Liang J. The British Empire and Tibet: 1774–1904, p. 179.

  12. 12.

    Hsu, I. C. Y. the Rise of Modern China: 1600–2000, p. 84.

  13. 13.

    Zou (2000).

  14. 14.

    A massive insurgency fought between the Manchu Qing dynasty and the Christian millenarian movement of “the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace” that lasted from 1850 to 1864.

  15. 15.

    Fairbank J. K. The Great Chinese Revolution: 1800–1985, p. 131.

  16. 16.

    Fairbank J. K. & Liu G. The Cambridge History of China: Late Qing, p. 340.

  17. 17.

    Fairbank J. K. & Liu G. The Cambridge History of China: Late Qing, pp. 280–283.

  18. 18.

    Wright (2002): 269.

  19. 19.

    Fairbank J. K. The Great Chinese Revolution: 1800–1985, p. 145.

  20. 20.

    Wang (2000): 21.

  21. 21.

    Yoda (2004): 58.

  22. 22.

    Feng (2001): 209.

  23. 23.

    Stavrianos, L., A Global History: the World after 1500, p. 482.

  24. 24.

    Chenggong Zheng, who was known in the West by his Hokkien honorific Koxinga, as part of the loyalist movement to restore the Ming dynasty after it was overthrown by the Manchu people.

  25. 25.

    Hao and Chen (2012): 2.

  26. 26.

    Hu (1981): 346.

  27. 27.

    Hsu, I. C. Y. The Rise of Modern China: 1600–2000, p. 299.

  28. 28.

    Hu (1981): 346.

  29. 29.

    Hobsbawm (1999a): 364.

  30. 30.

    Candler (1989a): 112.

  31. 31.

    Ya H. The Biography of the 13th Dalai Lama, p. 181.

  32. 32.

    Candler (1989b): 182.

  33. 33.

    Liang J. The Great Britain and Tibet: 1774–1904, p. 308.

  34. 34.

    Huc (1991): 509–510.

  35. 35.

    Candler (1989b): 186.

  36. 36.

    Ibid.

  37. 37.

    Hobsbawm (1999b): 70.

  38. 38.

    “Three Principles of the People” include: a nationalistic revolution to overthrow the Manchu dynasty and the imperial institution, a democratic revolution to establish a republic and popular sovereignty, and a social revolution to equalize land rights and to prevent the ills of capitalism.

  39. 39.

    Sun (1982): 2.

  40. 40.

    Zhou and Zhou (2015): 3–6.

  41. 41.

    Liu (2001): 20–24.

  42. 42.

    Liang J. The Britons and the Tibet of China: 1774–1904, p. 342.

  43. 43.

    Zhou W. & Zhou Y. The Comprehensive History of Tibet: 1912–1949, p. 19.

  44. 44.

    Liu X. The Issue of Outer Mongolia, pp. 25–30.

  45. 45.

    Guo Q. Chronicle of Major Events of Tibet: 1912–1949, p. 47.

  46. 46.

    Hao and Du (2007): 91.

  47. 47.

    It was headed by Victor Bulwer-Lytton, the second Earl of Lytton of Great Britain.

  48. 48.

    Hsü I. The Rise of China:1600–2000, p. 442.

  49. 49.

    Jiang N. The History of Manchukuo, pp. 342–345.

  50. 50.

    Xiao (1979).

  51. 51.

    Wu and Zhou (2000): 146.

  52. 52.

    Zhou (2001): 105.

  53. 53.

    The Nation-state Building History of the Soviet Union (1997).

  54. 54.

    Zhou H. Xinjiang Society during the Republic of China, p. 119.

  55. 55.

    Li (2003).

  56. 56.

    Shen (2007a).

  57. 57.

    Shen (2007b).

  58. 58.

    Li (1986).

  59. 59.

    Liu X. The Issue of Outer Mongolia, p. 85.

  60. 60.

    Li S. Xinjiang: History and Current Situation, p. 206.

  61. 61.

    Chen (1998).

  62. 62.

    Sun (2007).

  63. 63.

    Chen (1998).

  64. 64.

    Shen Z. The History of Sino-Soviet Relations, p. 80.

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  1. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China

    Shiyuan Hao

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  1. Shiyuan Hao
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Hao, S. (2020). A Century of National Humiliation: Threats of Border Areas Fragmentation by the Imperialist Powers. In: China's Solution to Its Ethno-national Issues. China Insights. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9519-3_2

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9519-3_2

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