Abstract
The concept of salutogenesis, with its emphasis on efforts toward sustaining and promoting health rather than combatting disease, is relatively new to the historians of architecture and urbanism. Yet, salutogenic agendas permeated various aspects of early modern European architectural theory, design, and planning. Government authorities regulated industrial waste and sewage disposal and subsidized large-scale hydraulic projects; by the end of the eighteenth century, they also claimed increasing control over healthcare services previously managed by networks of charitable organizations and institutions. These developments had a lasting impact on the urban environment. They added palatial grandeur to hospital architecture; gave greater legibility to fountain design to betoken the provision of fresh running water; and set afoot other strategies of improvement, such as the creation of river embankments and carriage promenades. This chapter examines these various manifestations of salutogenic urbanism, explaining their fundamental role in transforming the city space by generating new social practices and communal rituals and raising the standards of urban living.
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Notes
- 1.
Terry Kirk, The Architecture of Modern Italy (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2005), 1:45.
- 2.
Giuseppe Andreocci, Breve ragguaglio di ciò che in genere di belle arti si contiene di più prezioso in Città di Castello (Arezzo: s.n., 1829), 21.
- 3.
Giacomo Mancini, Istruzione storico-pittorica per visitare le chiese e palazzi di Città di Castello colle memorie di alcuni artefici del disegno che in detta città fiorirono (Perugia: Tipografia Baduel, 1832), 246–247.
- 4.
Ibid., 245–246.
- 5.
Ibid., 259 (based on the inscription of 1365).
- 6.
One of these institutions, the Ospedale della Misericordia, was founded in 1348 after the Black Death; see Ibid., 275–276.
- 7.
Eugenio Mannucci, Guida storico-artistica di Città di Castello (Città di Castello: Lapi, Raschi, 1878), 21–22.
- 8.
See Matthew Hardy, “‘Study the Warm Winds and the Cold’: Hippocrates and the Renaissance Villa,” in Aeolian Winds and the Spirit in Renaissance Architecture: Academia Eolia Revisited, ed. Barbara Kenda (London: Routledge, 2006), 48–69; Susan Russell, “The Villa Pamphilj on the Janiculum Hill: The Garden, the Senses and Good Health in Seventeenth-Century Rome,” in Sense and the Senses in Early Modern Art and Cultural Practice, ed. Alice E. Sanger and Siv Tove Kulbrandstad Walker (Farnham, Surrey, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012), 129–146; Anatole Tchikine, “The Expulsion of the Senses: The Idea of the ‘Italian Garden’ and the Politics of Sensory Experience,” in Sound and Scent in the Garden, ed. D. Fairchild Ruggles (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2017), 236–238; Frances Gage, “Chasing ‘Good Air’ and Viewing Beautiful Perspectives: Painting and Health Preservation in Seventeenth-Century Rome,” in Conserving Health in Early Modern Culture. Bodies and Environments in Italy and England, ed. Sandra Cavallo and Tessa Storey (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2017), 237–261; Mirka Beneš, “Doctor’s Orders: Health and the Renaissance Garden,” LA+: Interdisciplinary Journal of Landscape Architecture 11 (2020), 12–19; Katherine M. Bentz, “Gardens, Air, and the Healing Power of Green in Early Modern Rome,” in Visualizing the Past in Italian Renaissance Art. Essays in Honor of Brian M. Curran, ed. Jennifer Cochran Anderson and Douglas N. Dow (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2021), 235–267.
- 9.
David R. Coffin, “The ‘Lex Hortorum’ and Access to Gardens of Latium During the Renaissance,” Journal of Garden History 2:3 (1982), 201–232.
- 10.
Duccio Balestracci, “The Regulation of Public Health in Italian Medieval Towns,” in Die Vielfalt der Dinge: neue Wege zur Analyse mittelalterlicher Sachkultur: internationaler Kongress, Krems an der Donau, 4. bis 7. Oktober 1994: Gedenkschrift in Memoriam Harry Kühnel, ed. Helmut Hundsbichler, Gerhard Jaritz, and Thomas Kühtreiber (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1998), 345–357.
- 11.
Georges Duby, The Age of the Cathedrals: Art and Society, 980–1420, trans. Eleanor Levieux and Barbara Thompson (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1981). For the medieval urban revival, see also Carlo M. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy, 1000–1700 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1976), 139–145.
- 12.
For health and disease in early modern Europe, see a good overview in Robert Mandrou, Introduction to Modern France, 1500–1640: An Essay in Historical Psychology (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), 33–48.
- 13.
For the history and chronology of Florentine hospitals, a fundamental point of reference is still Luigi Passerini, Storia degli stabilmenti di beneficenza e d’istruzione elementare gratuita della città di Firenze (Florence: Tipografia le Monnier, 1853). Among more recent studies, see John Henderson, “The Hospitals of Late Medieval and Renaissance Florence: A Preliminary Survey,” in The Hospital in History, ed. Lindsay Granshaw and Roy Porter (London: Routledge, 1989), 63–92; Katharine Park, “Healing the Poor: Hospitals and Medical Assistance in Renaissance Florence,” in Medicine and Charity Before the Welfare State, ed. Jonathan Barry and Colin Jones (London: Routledge, 1991), 26–45.
- 14.
Giovanni Villani, Nuova cronica, XII.94.
- 15.
Ludwig H. Heidenreich, Architecture in Italy 1400–1500, rev. Paul Davis (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996), 105.
- 16.
For the orto of the Ospedale di Bonifacio, see Agostino del Riccio, Agricoltura sperimentale, Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, MS Targioni Tozzetti, 56, I–II, fols. 231r and 326v. For the two orti of the Ospidale degli Innocenti, see Benedetto Varchi, Storia fiorentina, ed. Lelio Arbib (Florence: Società Editrice delle Storie del Nardi e del Varchi, 1838–1841), 2:101.
- 17.
Esther Diana, “Struttura architettonica e patrimonio immobiliare cittadino tra XIII e XVIII secolo. Il contributo di Santa Maria Nuova alla formazione della città,” in La bellezza come terapia: arte e assistenza nell’ospedale di Santa Maria Nuova a Firenze. Atti del Convegno Internazionale Firenze, 20–22 maggio 2004, ed. Enrico Ghidetti and Esther Diana (Florence: Edizioni Polistampa, 2005), 68.
- 18.
Cf. Varchi, Storia fiorentina, 2:106–107, who drew an explicit connection between these two types of structures.
- 19.
Del Riccio, Agricoltura sperimentale, fols. 274v–275r. For the connection between food and class, see Allen J. Grieco, “The Social Politics of Pre-Linnaean Botanical Classification,” I Tatti Studies in the Italian Renaissance 4 (1991), 131–149; Ken Albala, Eating Right in the Renaissance (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 184–216.
- 20.
Giovanni Targioni Tozzetti, Prodromo della corografia e della topografia fisica della Toscana (Florence: Stamperia Imperiale, 1754), 111–112. For the botanical garden of Ognissanti, see also Del Riccio, Agricoltura sperimentale, fol. 168v; Giovanni Targioni Tozzetti, Atti e memorie inedite dell’Accademia del Cimento, e notizie aneddote dei progressi delle scienze in Toscana (Florence: Giuseppe Tofani, 1780), 3:6.
- 21.
Marcello Virgilio Adriani, Pedacii Dioscoridae Anazarbei de Medica materia libri sex … (Florence: Giunti, 1518), 232v (“Vidimus nos in maioris civitatis nostrae nosocomii hortis natam plantam”).
- 22.
Agostino del Riccio, Agricoltura sperimentale, fols. 216v, 222r–223r.
- 23.
Tchikine, “The Expulsion of the Senses,” 237.
- 24.
Varchi, Storia fiorentina, 2:101. Numerous references to these hostels in Guido Carocci’s authoritative early twentieth-century guide to the environs of Florence give a sense of the abundance of such institutions in late medieval Florence. See Guido Carocci, I Dintorni di Firenze (Florence: Galletti e Cocci, 1907–1908), 1:7, 26, 163, 172, 181, 187, 192, 194, 200, 261, 314, 316, 349, 360; 2:70–71, 90, 98, 106, 146, 150, 180, 236, 293, 294, 306, 387, 395, 396, 433.
- 25.
Carocci, I Dintorni, 1:314, 1:360.
- 26.
Ibid., 2:387.
- 27.
Ibid., 2:150.
- 28.
Ibid., 1:194, 316.
- 29.
Ibid., 2:71.
- 30.
Ibid., 2:98; for other hospitals on the Via Aretina, see ibid., 2:90.
- 31.
Ibid., 1:220, 254.
- 32.
See Renato Pasta, “L’ospedale e la citta. Riforme settecentesche a Santa Maria Nuova,” in La bellezza come terapia, 271–293.
- 33.
“Prospetto principale dello spedale unito d’infermi invalidi proietti, ed orfane eretto in citta di Castello e felicitato sotto gli auspici del sommo regnante pontefice Pio Sesto alle di cui glorie immortali umilmente lo consagra monsignor Luigi Gazzoli govenatore di Loreto e delegato perpetuo del medesimo spedale.” For the meaning of projetti as the poor, see Salvatore Battaglia, Grande dizionario della lingua italiana, ed. Giorgio Bárberi Squarotti (Turin: UTET, 1961–2009), 14:569 (“Chi è di modeste condizioni sociali”).
- 34.
From the ending of Jonathan Swift’s Verses on the Death of Dr. Swift (1731).
- 35.
For healthcare services in early modern Ireland, see James Kelly, “The Emergence of Scientific and Institutional Medical Practice in Ireland, 1650–1800,” in Medicine, Disease and the State in Ireland, 1650–1940, ed. Elizabeth Malcolm and Greta Jones (Cork: University College Cork Press, 1999), 21–39. For the differences in early modern hospital management between northern and southern Europe, see Ole Peter Grell and Andrew Cunningham, “Health Care and Poor Relief in 18th and 19th Century Northern Europe,” in Health Care and Poor Relief in 18thand 19thCentury Northern Europe, ed. Ole Peter Grell, Andrew Cunningham, and Robert Jütte (London and New York: Routledge, 2017), 3–14.
- 36.
Michel de Montaigne, Essays, trans. J. M. Cohen (London: Penguin Books, 1993), 136 (“On smells”).
- 37.
Cesare D’Onofrio, Il Tevere: L’Isola tiberina, le inondazioni, i molini, i porti, le rive, i muraglioni, i ponti di Roma (Rome: Romana Società Editrice, 1980), 77–86.
- 38.
Dante, Purgatorio, XIV.51; Eve Borsook, The Companion Guide to Florence (Bury of St. Edmunds: St. Edmundsbury Press, 1997), 139.
- 39.
Steen Eiler Rasmussen, London: The Unique City, rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982), 116.
- 40.
Paolo Squatriti, Water and Society in Early Medieval Italy, AD 400–1000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 17–18.
- 41.
Fabio Bargagli Petrucci, Le fonti di Siena e i loro aquedotti, note storiche dalle origini fino al MDLV (Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 1906), 1:122–123.
- 42.
For the restoration of ancient aqueducts in Rome, see Pamela O. Long, “Hydraulic Engineering and the Study of Antiquity: Rome, 1557–70,” Renaissance Quarterly 61:4 (2008), 1098–1138; Katherine Wentworth Rinne, The Waters of Rome: Aqueducts, Fountains, and the Birth of the Baroque City (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2010).
- 43.
See Anatole Tchikine, “Technology of Grandeur: Early Modern Aqueducts in Portugal,” in The History of Water Management in the Iberian Peninsula, ed. Ana Duarte Rodrigues and Carmen Toribio (Basel: Birkhäuser, 2020), 140.
- 44.
Tchikine, “Technology of Grandeur,” 148–156. For the history of water management in Portugal, see also Luísa Trindade, “A água nas cidades portuguesas entre os séculos XIV e XVI: a mudança de paradigma,” in Patrimonio cultural vinculado con el agua: paisaje, urbanismo, arte, ingenieria y turismo, ed. María del Mar, Lozano Bartolozzi, and Vicente Méndez Hernán (Mérida: Editora Regional de Extremadura, 2014), 367–380.
- 45.
Tchikine, “Technology of Grandeur,” 143.
- 46.
Anatole Tchikine, “‘L’anima del Giardino’: Water, Gardens, and Hydraulics in Sixteenth-Century Florence and Naples,” in Technology and the Garden, ed. Michael G. Lee and Kenneth I. Helphand (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2014), 138–139. See also Emanuela Ferretti, Acquedotti e fontane del Rinascimento in Toscana: acqua, architettura e città al tempo di Cosimo I dei Medici (Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 2016).
- 47.
Ibid.
- 48.
Trindade, “A água nas cidades portuguesas,” 375–376. For bathing in the Middle Ages, see Squatriti, Water and Society, 44–63.
- 49.
Giovanni Boccaccio, The Decameron, trans. G. H. McWilliam (London: Penguin, 1972), 668–669 (day eight, story ten). Paolo Viti’s suggestion that this episode takes place in thermal rather than regular baths is probably incorrect, given that the story is set in Palermo; see Paolo Viti, “Segreti delle acque,” in Segreti delle acque: studi e immagini sui bagni, secoli XIV-XIX. Atti del Seminario, Firenze, 8 novembre 2005, ed. Paolo Viti (Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 2007), 5.
- 50.
Florence, Archivio di Stato, Mediceo del Principato, 6375, fols. 62r (June 12, 1565): “… per 4 barrili conpri … per far portar’ l’aqua d’Arno alle tinoze per la Ecc[ellentissi]ma S[igno]ra [Isabella de’ Medici] …,” “A spese diverse baiochi cinquantacinque per loro a 6 fachini porto a Crecenzio fachino … e sono per 8 barili d’aqua d’Arno portata per la Ecc[ellentissi]ma S[igno]ra al palazo de’ Medici …”; 63r (June 16, 1565): “A spese diverse g[i]uli quattro per loro a 4 facchini porto Fr[ances]co di Dom[eni]co … per 8 barili d’acqua d’Arno condotta al palazzo de’ Medici per far bangni [sic] per la Ecc[ellentissi]ma S[igno]ra N[ost]ra …”; 67v (July 6, 1565): “A spese diverse lire tre per aver portato 8 barili d’aqua d’Arno …,” “Alle dette lire dua per avere portato 8 barili d’aqua d’Arno per la Ecc[ellentissi]ma S[igno]ra …”
- 51.
See Viti, “Segreti delle acque,” 16–18. For pregnancy, see, for example, Franco Sacchetti, Novelle (Florence: s.n., 1724), 1:216–217 (novella 131); Domenico Burchiello, I sonetti del Burchiello, ed. Michelangelo Zaccarello (Bologna: Commissione per i testi di lingua, 2000), 127 (sonnet 127).
- 52.
Substantial portions of this text in English translation are found in Philippe Braunstein, “Towards Intimacy: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries,” in A History of Private Life II: Revelations of the Medieval World, ed. Georges Duby, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1988), 603–606.
- 53.
See Morgan Ng, “Terremoti artificiali. La sismologia aristotelica nella guerra sotterranea del Rinascimento,” in Material World: The Intersection of Art, Science, and Nature in Ancient Literature and Its Renaissance Reception, ed. Guy Hedreen (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2021), 149–152.
- 54.
See Dominique de Courcelles, “Montaigne d’eaux et de pierres,” in Segreti delle acque, 105–117.
- 55.
For early modern medical advice on exercise, see Sandra Cavallo and Tessa Storey, Healthy Living in Late Renaissance Italy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), especially 145–178; Katherine M. Bentz, “Healthy Exercise for Social Elites: Sport and the Early Modern Italian Villa,” in Landscapes for Sport: Histories of Physical Exercise, Sport, and Health, ed. Sonja Dümpelmann (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2022), 33–63.
- 56.
Giuseppe del Rosso, “Considerazioni sulla convenienza degli ornamenti dei giardini italiani rapporto a quelli delle altre nazioni,” in Marco Lastri and Giuseppe del Rosso, L’osservatore fiorentino sugli edifizi della sua patria, 4th ed. (Florence: Giuseppe Celli, 1834), 14:64.
- 57.
See Coffin, “The ‘Lex Hortorum’”; William Stenhouse, “Visitors, Display, and Reception in the Antiquity Collections of Late-Renaissance Rome,” Renaissance Quarterly, 58:2 (2005), 397–434.
- 58.
See Mohammad Gharipour, “The Gardens of Safavid Isfahan and Renaissance Italy: A New Urban Landscape?” in Gardens of Renaissance Europe and the Islamic Empires: Encounters and Confluences, ed. Mohammad Gharipour (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2017), 101–134.
- 59.
One famous casualty was the young humanist poet Michele Verino (1469–1487), hit by a wooden ball. See Marco Antonio Lastri, L’osservatore fiorentino sugli edifizi della sua patria per servire alla storia della medesima (Florence: Stamperia dalla Croce Rossa, 1776–1778), 2.II:144–145.
- 60.
Lorenzo Cantini, Legislazione toscana raccolta e illustrata (Florence: Stamperia Albizziniana, 1800–1808), 8:166.
- 61.
Henry W. Lawrence, City Trees: A Historical Geography from the Renaissance Through the Nineteenth Century (Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press, 2006), 32–33. For the original regulations governing the use of the Maliebaan in Utrecht, see Johan van de Water, Groot placaatboek vervattende alle de placaten, ordonnantien en edicten, der edele mogende heeren Staten ‘s Lands van Utrecht … (Utrecht: Jacob van Poolsum, 1729), 508–509.
- 62.
See Domenico Montelatici, Villa Borghese fuori di Porta Pinciana con l’ornamenti, che si osservano nel di lei palazzo, e con le figure delle statue più singolare (Rome: Buagni, 1700).
- 63.
Lawrence, City Trees, 34, 37.
- 64.
Ibid., 38–39. For urban de-fortification, see Yair Mintzker, The Defortification of the German City, 1689–1866 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
- 65.
John Evelyn, “A Character of England,” in The Miscellaneous Writings (London: Henry Colburn, 1825), 157; Fumifugium: Or the Inconveniencie of the Aer and Smoke of London Dissipated (London: W. Godbid, 1661), 25.
- 66.
Nikolai Borisov, “Chiuma i vozvyshenie Moskvy” (“The plague and the rise of Moscow”), Rodina 5 (2014), 62.
- 67.
Girolamo Gastaldi, Tractatus de avertenda et profliganda peste (Bologna: Typographia Manolessiana, 1684). For the plague of 1656–1657 in Rome, see David Gentilcore, “Purging Filth: Plague and Responses to it in Rome, 1656–1657,” in Rome, Pollution and Propriety: Dirt, Disease and Hygiene in the Eternal City from Antiquity to Modernity, ed. Mark Bradley with Kenneth Stow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 153–168.
- 68.
Ibid., 278.
- 69.
Ibid., 181–182.
- 70.
Ibid., 315–317, 319–320.
- 71.
Ibid., 326.
- 72.
Ibid., 335–337.
- 73.
Ibid., 265–266.
- 74.
Carlo Celano and Giovanni Battista Chiarini, Notizie del bello, dell’antico, e del curioso della città di Napoli … (Naples: Stamperia Floriana, 1856–1860), 4:317. For the plague of 1656 in Naples, an indispensable source is still Salvatore de Renzi, Napoli nell’anno 1656 (Naples: Domenico de Pascale, 1867). See also Renato Ruotolo, Napoli nel ‘600: luoghi, avvenimenti, personaggi del secolo d’oro napoletano (Naples: Altrastampa, 2002), 39–43.
- 75.
Carlo M. Cipolla, Faith, Reason, and the Plague in Seventeenth-Century Tuscany (New York and London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1979).
- 76.
Harold Avery, “Plague Churches, Monuments and Memorials,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 59:2 (1966), 10–16.
- 77.
See Michel Foucault, “The Politics of Health in the Eighteenth Century,” in Power / Knowledge: Selected Interviews & Other Writings, ed. Colin Gordon (Now York: Vintage Books, 1980), 166–182.
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Tchikine, A., Gharipour, M. (2023). Introduction: Achieving a Healthy City in Early Modern Europe. In: Gharipour, M., Tchikine, A. (eds) Salutogenic Urbanism. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-7851-7_1
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