Social Justice in the Gulf States: A Case in Qatar

Abstract

Social justice continues to construct important agenda for discussion due to its role in addressing the problems of inequality and ensuring the rights of equality of employment and health. This chapter addresses social justice cases in Qatar by highlighting the new measures taken by Qatari Government in ensuring migrants’ rights and healthcare provisions during the COVID-19 pandemic. This chapter reports that Qatar has ensured a high form of social justice by vaccinating more than 99% of its residents. Qatar has also achieved some successes in promoting social justice through pioneering reforms in labor sector. Apart from visionary political leadership, robust judicial process, consolidation of social development institutions, and client-focused health policy and services have been instrumental in boosting up social justice.

1 Introduction

The rise of inequality in the distribution of income and access to various services sectors is a globally recognized matter (Oxfam, 2020; UN, 2006). The COVID-19 pandemic has aggravated the situation (Sanchez-Paramo et al., 2021; Chancel et al., 2021, p. 46) succinctly mentioned, “The COVID-19 Pandemic has exacerbated several forms of health, social, gender and racial inequality within countries.”

Social justice continues to construct important agenda for discussion due to its role in addressing the problems of inequality, ensuring the rights of equality of employment health, and ultimately achieving long-lasting peace (Bary, 2005; ILO, 1919; Midgley, 2020). Most importantly, the widespread disparity in vaccination for fighting against coronavirus warrants social justice in the distribution of vaccines (Hasan & Dearden, 2021; Oehler & Vega, 2021; UN, 2021). Tatar et al., (2021 p. 1) noted, “COVID-19 Vaccine distribution is substantially unequal, and global efforts are vitally needed to distribute to low- and middle-income countries.“ By pointing out that more than 75% of all vaccines had been administered in just ten countries, the Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO) called the vaccination distribution a “scandalous inequality that is perpetuating the Pandemic” (India Today, 2021). He further noted, “If we are to end the pandemic in the coming year, we must end inequality” (Gulf Times, 2021a).

Coupled with inequality in vaccination, the current severe economic crisis created by the COVID-19 pandemic desperately pushed for doing well for the migrants. Migrants constituted 3.54% of the world population (IOM, 2020). The interplay between migration and development has long been in existence. The recent ethical imperative of the United Nations (UN), no one left behind (UNSDG, 2019), focuses on the need for improving the socio-economic condition of migrants to achieve its targets set in the Development Agenda 2030, primarily zero poverty and no hunger (UN, 2018). The economic upliftment of those who live at the “Base of the Pyramid (BOP)” should be the core of all attempts taken by both state and non-state actors. We are fortunate enough to see the visibility of such thinking since long while US President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937 called for building an economy from the bottom-up, indicating the forgotten man at the bottom of the economic pyramid.¹ C.K. Prahalad, a management scholar, popularized the concept in 2004 and stressed that 4 billion people lived at the BOP earning only $2 per day (Prahalad, 2004). Leaving them behind, the UN targets succumbed to failure at least partially, if not entirely.

To reiterate, migration continues to construct important agenda for discussion concerning its role in development. This is particularly true in the case of the State of Qatar, a country that is home to more than two million expatriates (88% of the total population). Among them, migrants constituted approximately 95% of the total labor force (Human Rights Watch, 2020), and the ratio is highest in the world. Therefore, any reform effort underpinning the welfare of migrants is essential in enhance the developmental impacts of migration which was given particular emphasis by then UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon (UN, 2013).

Qatar caught the attention of the various international organizations such as, in general, and the International Labor Organization (ILO), International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), International Organization of Employers (ITO), Federation of International Football Association (FIFA), and Amnesty International (AI), for its spearheaded pioneering labor sector reforms. ILO succinctly mentioned that reform like removing the No Objection Certificate (NOC) was the first of its kind in the Gulf region, while AI termed the latest reform a significant step toward protecting migrant workers (Rahman, 2020). Qatar has set a milestone in addressing the COVID-19 pandemic and providing health services to the residents, including the migrants. Qatar emerged as a successful country in ensuring social justice in providing vaccines to their residents, including the migrants. In sum, Qatar showed its commitment to protect the rights of migrants and promote social justice.

Research in this area, however, is very scanty. Moreover, the social justice issue in Qatar remains at the center of the debate. Some studies found negative results, while others positively viewed Qatar's stance in advancing social justice. For example, Gardner et al. (2014, p. 5) mentioned, “Migrants who can bring their justice system, are often unable to endure in that system. Instead, they abandon their cases, they seek to return their homes, or they seek works that are illegal under the strictures of the kafala.” On the other hand, Tok et al. (2016) noted Qatar's recent transformation and the development of social, political, and administrative institutions. Ali et al. (2016) specifically pointed out that Qatar significantly transformed its health system and improved health governance.

Rahaman (2020a) conducted a pioneering study on the subject. He cited numerous examples of Qatar's stance in enhancing social justice by giving justice to workers and providing healthcare service to everyone irrespective of nationality and immigration status. Rahman (2020, p. 2) mentions “Qatar, for example, has practiced a more inclusive COVID-19 pandemic management policy, taking care of everyone in the country, nationals and residents alike.”

In another study, Rahaman (2020b) elaborated how Qatar played a vital role in ensuring social justice by reforming its labor sector following international migration conventions. Rahaman et al. (2020) highlighted the institutional preparedness of Qatar in tandem with other factors to uphold social justice through providing healthcare service. Rahaman and Khan (2021) focused on Qatar's Social Protection Policy to provide healthcare services and promote social justice.

This study is a new addition to the debate. It seeks to fill the current void of research on social justice in Qatar. The chapter is organized in the following way: First, it will conceptualize social justice and identify its core elements. Then it attempts to elaborate upon the unfolding stories of social justice in Qatar in the subsequent sections.

2 Social Justice: Definition and the Context

Social justice has a long history; however, the concept's origins are unclear (Kraynak, 2018). Supposedly, the term was first coined by Luigi Taparelli S.J. in the early 1840s (Wikipedia, 2021). Some people mentioned that Antonio Rosmini (2006) was one of the first to use the term in 1848 (Kraynak, 2018) in his book, The Constitution under Social Justice (Antonio, 2006). ILO (1919) is supposed to be the first international organization to use the term in its preamble: “peace can be established if it is based on social justice.” The UN (2006) states that “Social Justice may be broadly understood as the fair and compassionate distribution of the fruits of economic growth.”

Social justice, however, encompasses many issues and perspectives. Austin (2014), for example, explained social justice for legal, literary, religious, and humanitarian perspectives. Rawls (1971) argues that social justice provides a way of assigning rights and duties in the basic institutions of society, which define the appropriate distribution of benefits and burdens of social cooperation. Simply put, social justice is the equal access to health, economy, opportunities, and privileges of the people within a society. This simple definition indicates the link between social justice, social protection, and the rule of law. The rule of law has two clear meanings: equality of people in the eye of law and equal protection before the law.

Concerning migration, this paper further analyzes social justice in the context of the rights of migrants enshrined in the international instruments, namely ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, 1998; Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951; Domestic Workers convention, 2011; International Convention on the protection on the Rights of All Migrants and members of their Families, 1990; Minimum Wage Fixing Convention, 1970; Equal Opportunities and Equal Treatment for Men and Women Workers: Workers with Family Responsibility, 1981; Decent Work Agenda, 2008; and Global Compact for Migration, 2016.

While it is easy to explain the issues and perspectives of social justice, achieving its targets is difficult. Midgley (2020) argues that a carefully designed, adequately funded, and effectively implemented social protection policy can enhance social justice. In a 2000 publication, the WB (2000, p. xi) stated, “Poorly functioning public sector institutions and weak governments are major constraints to growth and equitable development in many developing countries.” It further states, “Institutions are central to sustainable and beneficial economic growth. They create the policies, mobilize and manage the resources, and deliver the services which stimulate and sustain development. Growth and prosperity are unlikely to be maintained if the institutions which guide them are dysfunctional” (Salman, 1992, p. 11). Therefore, institutions appear to be important for ensuring social justice. Lately, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable development and its 17 goals called Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have been the cornerstone of development and sustainability. Goal 3 of the SDGs primarily focused on ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all ages. Goal 16 called for building effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels. Within the wider perspective of sustainable development, a focus on developing and nurturing appropriate institutions has become conspicuous lately, which was echoed by Rawls (1971, p. 4) “.....they provide a way of assigning rights and duties in the basic institutions of society and they define the appropriate distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation.”

The COVID-19 pandemic and the havoc it has wrecked may also be seen and reflected upon from the perspective of an institutional failure. Some research identified the institutional failure to protect people from coronavirus (Patrick, 2020; Rhodes, 2021). Others explained that high healthcare costs, shortage of protective equipment, low medical capacity, ICU beds, and ventilators have ultimately exposed weaknesses in the delivery of patient care (Cohen & Rogers, 2020; Ranney et al., 2020). In another way, institutional capacity, including health infrastructure, human resources (doctors, nurse, lab technician), and availability of medicine and financial resource, emerged as the dominant factor. Suffice it to mention here that the importance and usefulness of investing in and building robust service institutions are unequivocally established.

Social justice also requires the prevention of some forms of human trafficking. Human trafficking has various effects at both individual and societal levels. Ending human trafficking has appeared to be an important agenda for discussion concerning its relevance and proximity to some of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), notably decent work and economic growth (goal 8), and promote peaceful and inclusive societies (goal 16). According to a new estimate, human traffickers enslave approximately 24.9 million victims worldwide in forced labor and sexual exploitation and state-imposed forced labor (ILO & Walk Free Foundation, 2017). Simply put, human trafficking is the trade of human beings for exploitation in the form of forced labor, sex slavery, involuntary servitude, etc. (UNODC, 2000). Such exploitation is against the rights of workers and principles of social justice. A further discussion on human trafficking as a global menace would be quite topical and appropriate in our time.

To sum up, social protection policy, prevention of human trafficking, the rule of law, and strong institutions have been vital for ensuring social justice. I develop a model of social justice in the (Fig. 6.1).

Fig. 6.1

(Source Prepared by the author)

Model of social justice

The next section shows how Qatar promoted social justice following the above model.

3 Social Justice in Providing Health Service

Healthcare standards in Qatar are generally high. Its health care is dominated primarily by the public sector. Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC) and Primary Health Care Service (PHCC) are the main health service providers. While the HMC charges a minimum fee for visiting the doctors, the PHCC provides this health service free of charge. In the usual situation, health service recipients must pay only 20% of the total cost of services (medicine, medical examinations, and doctor's visiting charges in HMC). By providing an 80% waiver in medical services, Qatar has set an example of giving world-class care at an affordable price. Apart from the COVID-19 pandemic, the Qatar Government provided free treatment to many patients. For example, one Bangladeshi patient with blood cancer was treated in Qatar for about 16 months without any charge. Another Bangladeshi patient who had no residency permits was hospitalized for severe illness. Before being sent back to Bangladesh, the hospital authority provided necessary treatments with medicine for one week before discharging them from the hospital without charging him a fee. In the Long-Term Care Unit of Rumaillah hospital, many patients are being cared for a long time by providing sophisticated medical instruments with minimum cost. Since 2019, HMC has been taking care of one critical Bangladeshi patient. Although the patient's family paid a small amount, the actual cost was much higher than the paid amount (Rahaman & Khan, 2021).

Qatar has been hailed by world leaders and International Development Partners (IDPs) for its comprehensive efforts to control the COVID-19 Pandemic. The death toll in Qatar has only been 662, accounting just for 0.19% of the total positive cases (as of February 20, 2022). This ratio is one of the lowest in the world. Because Qatar has been one of the leading countries in providing excellent medical care to COVID-19 patients, its recovery rate (98.08% as of February 20, 2022) has been the envy of the world (global recovery rate is 82.33%) as it has a low death rate.

Qatar has stood out during the pandemic by providing free health care for those infected by the virus according to the best international standards. It is noteworthy that Qatar provided treatment to every resident, including those who had no valid work permits and health cards in congruence with international instruments, namely International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, 1990; Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provision) Convention, 1975; and ILO's Decent Work Agenda, 2008. As a result, Qatar has been able to address the health issues of the forgotten man at the bottom of the economic pyramid-the low-income migrants. Moreover, the country has treated both Qataris and non-Qataris equally. For example, a middle-aged laborer walked into an emergency room with flu and cough symptoms. He was admitted to the hospital after he tested COVID-19 positive. As his condition worsened and he started requiring oxygen, he was admitted to an intensive care unit and kept on ventilator support. Finally, he was given ECMO support—a very expensive machine requiring high maintenance and operating cost that works of the heart and lungs externally and allows the patient's body to rest. The patient eventually improved clinically, recovered from COVID-19, and walked out of the hospital after a total length of stay of one and a half months without paying a penny (Rahman, 2020). Even a Qatari citizen would not get more support because that was the highest level of treatment for COVID-19 patients.

Niranjan Chandra (54) is one who recovered from a coronavirus-related illness. Here is his story: He visited the local pharmacy with the symptoms of COVID-19 and took medicine for two days. As the symptoms worsened, he called the emergency ambulance service and was taken to the HMC, where he urgently attended and was diagnosed as corona positive. After 14 days of incentive treatment, he was sent to quarantine for another 11 days. He was eventually released after two consecutive test results confirming COVID-19 negative. He expressed overall satisfaction with food, accommodation, nursing, and treatment at the HMC and the quarantine. This case illustrates how Qatar has saved the lives of corona patients by ensuring timely and intensive institutional care (Rahaman et al., 2020).

Apart from an engaged political leadership, who has been on the top of things by maintaining daily vigilance of the anti-COVID-19 campaign in the country, institutional capacity appeared to be the important factor in curving the death toll in Qatar.² With the increase of COVID-19 positive cases, Qatar has been able to deploy required resources in workforce institutions expeditiously. With the increase of the COVID-19 pandemic, Qatar has set up several new facilities, such as field hospitals, isolation, and quarantine areas, expanded testing facilities, and distribution points for sanitizers and masks for the public and PPE for medical and paramedical professionals. Even amidst for crisis, the country remained sensitive to the special needs of the patients. Qatar, for example, appointed Bangladeshi doctors on an emergency basis based upon the proportion of Bangladeshi patients admitted to the hospital. Since the outbreak of COVID-19, the Ministry of Public Health undertook various preventive and curative measures; one innovative measure was the establishment of telemedicine facilities and home delivery of medicines for patients to limit face-to-face exposure to reduce the risk of infection spread which is supposed to be an effective way to provide healthcare service. It also undertook special measures for older people (55 and above), including a daily consultancy and awareness campaign over the telephone.

One important aspect of Qatar's health care and social protection is the service provided by case management. Case Management provides a variety of resources and works closely with patients, their families, and employer (legal guardian) to achieve optimum quality of care of patients. More specifically, case managers perform the following tasks: (1) ensure high-quality care is delivered in accordance with discharge policies and procedures; (2) refer patients after discharge to home care service; (3) refer cases to the concerned social worker for social assistance and external communication with patient's representatives; (4) initiate process of repatriation after agreement by team consultant through repatriation committee and follow the process with repatriation committee, social worker, employer, Qatar Airways, and Embassies; (5) solve problems that may occur during patient and his relatives/representatives hospitalization; and (6) support and protect the patient by identifying and taking actions in case of situations, events, and behaviors that may result in danger, harm, and abuse.

Qatar's health sector is very developed which is vested under the Qatar National Vision-2030. Qatar's health system aims to ensure that population is healthy both physically and mentally (General Secretariat for Development Planning, 2008). Qatar adopted two strategies: Qatar National Health Strategy (QNHS) 2018–2022; and Primary Health Care Strategy (PHCS) 2019–2023. The QNHS focuses on building a comprehensive world-class health system to ensure better health (MOPH, 2018). On the other hand, goals of PHCS are: All patients have named physical, and access to trained health team; accessible timely high-quality, comprehensive services available for all communities; expansion of health services delivered in primary care led community settings; and reduce vulnerability in quality of care (Primary Health Care Corporation, 2019). Qatar eventually declared 5-year roadmap of Primary health care.

Significant to note that Qatar has long invested in developing and consolidating social development institutions, including the health ministry and affiliated facilities. Since the 1990s, Qatar has made impressive strides in its healthcare system. Spending in the healthcare system continued to rise in Qatar. In 2014, Qatar invested $4.7 billion in healthcare (Arabian Business, 2015), increasing to $6.2 billion in 2018 (Albawada Business, 2019). Increased investment in health infrastructure improved life expectancy and better health outcomes, resulting in Qatar's health system being ranked fifth-best in the world. Qatar ranked first for a doctor per capita and fourth for satisfaction with health care (Gulf Times, 2019). Spending on health care in Qatar accounted for 2.2% of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2014, which was increased to 3.7% in 2018 (Gulf Times, 2019).

3.1 Social Justice in COVID-19 Vaccination

In tandem with other factors, vaccination has been seen as a necessary way of vanquishing the COVID-19 pandemic because of its efficacy in reducing the risk of getting and spreading the coronavirus. While it is heartening to witness the extraordinary achievement in developing vaccines against the COVID-19 pandemic, successfully vaccinating the global population appeared to be challenging. Such challenge mainly emanates from an unequal distribution of vaccines; as Brilliant et al. (2021) mentioned, “although the creation of vaccines was a triumph of international cooperation, their distribution has been anything but.”

Malloch-Brown, Rajshah, and Walker further echoed (2021):

The wealthiest countries have more than enough vaccine doses to protect their people from the virus, while the poorest countries do not. Those in the Global North also have the means to stave off economic calamity and social disruption through massive stimulus packages; hundreds of millions in the Global South have been driven into extreme poverty. This inequitable divide leaves humanity far more vulnerable to the next stage of the pandemic, as well as to any other systemic crisis that may emerge.

Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesur, Director-General of World Health Organization, mentioned that of the 832 million vaccine doses administered, 82% have gone to high-or upper-middle-income countries, while only 0.2% have been sent to their low-income counterparts.³ Hasan and Dearden (2021) further noted that by the end of November 2021, just 7% of people across Africa had been fully vaccinated.

Qatar highlighted the need for vaccine equity due to widespread discrepancies in administering vaccination around the world (The Peninsula, 2021). It also emerged as a country demonstrating its commitment to ensuring equity by vaccinating more than 99% of its total population (Gulf Times, 2022). As a part of its rapid vaccination campaign, Qatar established one of the largest vaccination centers in the world (Al Sharif, 2021). Residents, including the migrants, who have valid health cards, have come under the rubric of its rapid vaccination campaign. Other Gulf countries also achieved remarkable progress in vaccinating their residents, which have been mentioned below (as of February 20, 2022) (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1 Vaccination in the Gulf Countries

4 Social Justice in Migrant Worker Sector

4.1 Labour Sector Reforms

To reiterate, migrant workers make up 95% of the total labor force in Qatar (Amnesty International, 2019). For ensuring social justice, the migrant workers should be brought under equal treatment in terms of salary, service benefits, and other service conditions. Qatar is committed to creating a modern and dynamic labor market aligned with Qatar National Vision-2030. As a result, Qatar pursued some notable reforms in the labor sector to ensure justice to workers. It is important to note here that Qatar signed an agreement with the ILO in 2018 through which it became the first country among the Gulf countries to allow setting up an ILO office. The ILO office played a role in putting forward such reforms.

Furthermore, Qatar is going to host the FIFA World Cup in 2022. FIFA wanted to maintain the highest standard in its operations. From a global governance perspective, fulfilling FIFA's criteria also acted as a motivating factor that pushed for such reforms. Notable reforms have been discussed in Fig. 6.2.

Fig. 6.2

(Source Government Communications Office [2021]. Slightly modified by the author)

Qatar labor sector reforms

4.2 Wage Protection System (WPS)

In order to ensure timely payment of salary of workers, Qatar reformed the Labor Law and introduced Wage Protection System (WPS) under Law No.1 of 2015, which necessitated the mandatory payment of salary to the workers’ account at least once a month or once every two weeks.⁴ In case of violation, companies are given electronic messages under the new reform; violation results in a sentence of not more than a month in prison and a fine of not less than 2000 Qatari Riyals (QR) and not more than 6, 000 QR or either of these penalties. The Ministry of Labor mentioned that the introduction of WPS contributed to protecting more than 96% of workers from wage-related violations (Gulf Times, 2021b).

4.3 Adoption of Minimum Wage

Qatar adopted a non-discriminatory minimum wage for workers, including domestic aids under Law No.17, 2020.⁵ It fixed 1000 QR per month as a basic wage, 500 QR for accommodation expenses, and 300 QR for food, unless the employer provides accommodation and food. Qatar declared such reforms when we saw the retrenchment policy worldwide due to the economic crisis created by the COVID-19 Pandemic. It will surely increase the income of poorly paid migrants and thus help them break the vicious circle of poverty, ultimately contributing to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and social justice. Violation of this law may end the company with shutdown or suspension of operations. Ministry of Labor, Qatar, stated that the minimum wage policy benefited more than 4 00,000 workers due to an increase in salary and other financial incentives (Gulf Times, 2021b).

4.4 Abolition of Kafala System and Ease of the Change of Sponsorship

“Kafala” is an Arabic word that stands for sponsorship. Under this system, migrant workers must obtain a No Objection Certificate (NOC) from their current employer prior to applying for the change of sponsorship. The recent reform declared on August 30, 2020, dismantled the system by removing the requirement of NOC. Workers are no longer required to submit NOC for getting approval of change of sponsorship, but they need to give prior notice to the existing company. If the workers work under a company for two years or less, they need to give notice one month before and if they work in a company, more than two years require giving notice prior to two months.⁶

Moreover, under the kafala system, workers were required to obtain exit permits to leave Qatar, which was declared null and void under Law No.13, 2018 by reforming Exit and Residency related Law No.21, 2015. Under the law, workers can permanently leave Qatar and temporal vacation. In order to maintain the job environment, companies can apply to the Ministry of Labor to retain 5% of their total employees under the Kafala System who requires permission to leave Qatar.⁷ However, the Chief Executive Officer, Finance Officer, Supervisor, and Information Technology Officer are not subject to this provision.

Coupled with the termination of the exit permit, the abolition of NOC fully has put an end to the kafala system. Due to allowing mobility of workers, they will be able to find better positions, which would be vital to creating a dynamic and talented labor market. Companies would also be compelled to create a decent working environment to retain the talented existing workforce. Ministry of Labor, Qatar, released a statement showing that about 242,870 migrant workers could change their jobs since the announcement of facilitating workers transfer procedures between different employers in September 2020 (Gulf Times, 2021b) (Fig. 6.3).

Fig. 6.3

(Source Prepared by the author)

Flowchart of change of sponsorship

4.5 Introducing Qatar Visa Center (QVC)

Qatar introduced Qatar Visa Center (QVC) in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, India, and the Philippines to ensure justice to migrant workers in the process of recruitment. It enables the expatriates to easily and effectively complete the recruitment-medical test, biometric, and signature in e-contact. It ensures the eligibility and fitness of expatriates for workers before their arrival to Qatar. Most importantly, the QVC allows prospective workers to go through the agreement or job contract before signing. Through this system, expatriates’ welfare and protection of their rights are established. The process is as follows:

4.6 Protection of Domestic Workers

Under Law No.15, 2017, a decent work environment has been ensured for domestic workers for both sexes. An employer is responsible for providing suitable housing, food, medical care, medicine, a monthly wage, etc. The law prohibited the recruitment of domestic workers of both sexes under 18 years. The law fixed the time for daily work, which is limited to 10 h. Other terms and conditions have been mentioned: weekly leave, yearly leave allowance, ticket, service benefit, etc.⁸

4.7 Grievance Redress Mechanism

Qatar introduced the smart system in receiving and disposing of work-related complaints. Workers can complain to the Ministry of Labor either online or physically on work-related disputes. Following Citizen Charter, Labor Department tries to settle the dispute in seven days. In case of failure, it is forwarded to a dispute settlement committee, who are obliged to settle it in 7 days. In case of failure, it is sent to the high court. The court upholds workers’ rights as one worker explained his case: He worked in a company for almost two decades, was terminated, and was not paid a penny as a service benefit. He went through the grievance-redress mechanism by submitting a complaint to the Labor Department, handled through the Dispute Settlement Committee and Supreme Judicial Council. The court ordered the company to pay his service benefits and dismissed the firm's complaints against him. Three months after the court order, the company paid what was due (Rahman, 2020).

Thus, how Qatar upholds governance and accountability in the system. The flow of dispute settlement is mentioned in Fig. 6.4.

Fig. 6.4

(Source Prepared by the author)

Flow chart of dispute settlement

4.8 Establishment of Workers’ Support and Insurance Fund

Under Law No.17, 2018, Qatar established a Workers’ Support and Insurance Fund.⁹ Fees collected from the Workers’ permits and the renewal is the 60% source of its Budget. The fund aims to support and care for workers, guarantee their rights and provide a healthy and safe working environment. The fund is used to pay the workers’ benefits, which the labor dispute settlement committee settles, and establish safe accommodation, proper work environment, and playground and amusement center for the workers.

5 Rule of Law

It will not be an exaggeration to say that rule of law is the cornerstone of social justice. The Permanent Constitution of the State of Qatar is a prime exemplar of social justice and the rule of law. Article 18, 19, 30 primarily called for equality, equal opportunities, and social justice (State of Qatar, 2004). Qatar has come up with novel ideas and steps to ensure justice for migrant workers. In harmony with the constitutional guarantee, Qatar stepped in some measures that are thought to be useful to uphold social justice.

First, it introduced a time-bound grievance-redress mechanism. Second, workers have easy access to the justice process. The state court has appointed translators of different languages. Public prosecutors have been appointed responsible for helping both parties in dispute. The Chief Prosecutor of Residency Affairs has been vested with the power to dispose of complaints before forwarding them to the court and thus provide swift justice to victims. For example, runway case against workers is common in Qatar. Companies and sponsors have the right to file runway cases against their employees. At the same time, workers have been facilitated to get justice. Once a runaway case is filed, the accused receives a notification in his or her mobile number. He can apply to the Chief Prosecutor, residency affairs to get justice.

Numerous examples are worth mentioning here: First, the sponsor of a Bangladeshi filed a runway case against him. He applied to the embassy for his runway case vacation and got a No Objection Certificate (NOC) from the company to change his sponsorship. Accordingly, the embassy forwarded his application to the chief prosecutor of the residency affairs. After careful investigation, the chief prosecutor dismissed the runway case and directed the sponsor to provide him with the NOC. The worker later changed his company and got a residency card (Rahman, 2020).

In an extreme case, a sponsor demanded a Bangladeshi worker's money to prepare a QID. As he did not comply with the request, the sponsor lodged a runway case against him. The embassy wrote a letter to the chief prosecutor for residency affairs to ensure justice. The chief prosecutor investigated, held a hearing, and dismissed the case (Rahman, 2020).

Qatar also compensates a deceased or injured person if he is proved to be in the right position during the death or accident. In the case of an accident, either in the workplace or on the road, a person is entitled to receive compensation based upon the order of the competent court. Provision for death compensation is also available in Qatar, provided that the person was not guilty of his or her death.

6 Addressing the Human Trafficking Issues

Human trafficking entails some elements that correspond to sparking social injustice (UNODC, 2000). Nevertheless, every year human trafficking takes away many souls of human being around the globe. The world must be mournful by observing such unfortunate deaths of many migrants. These people succumbed to death while trying to migrate to developed countries by adopting illegal ways instead of ‘safe, orderly, and regular migration.’ The punishment for such heinous activities is supposed to be rigorous. In practice, many countries promulgated laws regulating human trafficking and proclaimed years to life imprisonment. In retrospect, we suppose not to be that much aggrieved when we see the news on non-payment of workers, confiscation of passports by employers, or involuntary servitude, because these anti-humane activities might not be life-threatening. Such unlawful activities are punished with lower terms of imprisonment than human trafficking. Said another way, human trafficking and violation of some of the rights of migrant workers should not be in the same boat; even if placed in the same boat, the levels should be different.

Human trafficking might occur throughout the whole process of migration or partially in the countries of origins and destinations. Considering the above discussions, this paper proposes to categorize human trafficking as follows: (A) extreme or less extreme; (B) hard or soft. (A) extreme (hard): migration as opposed to safe, orderly, and regular, which we usually see while some Asian, African, and Latin American nationals try to migrate to Europe, USA adopting illegal ways; (B) less extreme (soft): the migration adopts a broadly “legal” means but not in conformity with the basic principles of migration in which some fraudulent activities are visible either in the country of origin or in the destination country.

Literature review reveals that some forms of soft human trafficking are visible in Qatar (Gardner et al., 2014; US Department of State, 2021). Qatar also adopted some appreciated measures, and US Report on Trafficking in Persons (RIP), 2021, Ranked Qatar in TIER 2 (US Department of State, 2021). The State Department also honored H.E. Mohammed Hassan Al-Obaidly, Assistant Undersecretary for Labour Affairs of the Ministry of Labour as the 2021 TIP Report Hero for his leadership in addressing labor abuse in Qatar (US Embassy in Qatar, 2021). A recent report reveals that the Ministry of Labor inspected 35,280 workplaces and workers’ accommodation and issued 13,724 violations against companies, including closing workplaces, financial fines, prison sentences (Gulf Times, 2021b).

Under Law No.10, 2009, Qatar Government ratified the Prevention of Crime Related Convention of the United Nations and protocol related to Human trafficking, especially children and women. ILO recognized the attempts taken by Qatar to protect the rights of migrants. Under the law, No 15, 2011, persons involved in human trafficking shall be punished with seven years’ imprisonment and, 250,000 QR to 15 years’ imprisonment and 300,000 QR fines. Similarly, Under Law No.21, 2015, if the passport of workers is seized, he or she should be fined up to 25000QR. Someone can lodge complaints to the Ministry of Labor if his or her passport is seized. Qatar established a committee called National Human Trafficking Prevention Committee and Human Care Home to give law support, provide accommodation and protect health.

7 Conclusion

The role of social justice in protecting the rights of migrants enshrined in some international instruments is univocally established. Qatar, a country of Global South, spearheaded much appreciated pioneering reforms to ensure social justice to migrant workers. The UN labor organization, for example, termed the abolition of the Kafala system as a “milestone” (The Peninsula, 2020). The declaration of minimum wage is subsequently the first of its kind in the Middle East. Beat Andres, Chief of the Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work branch of the ILO Governance and Tripartism Department, remarked Qatar's reforms as a model for development (Gulf Times, 2018). Ensuring social justice is a time-consuming and difficult process. Considering this fact, Qatar is arguably a progressive country that successfully promoted social justice through labor sector reform.

Qatar has set a milestone in providing healthcare services to migrants during the COVID-19 pandemic. It provided healthcare services to all irrespective of nationality and immigration status. Nevertheless, the country treated both Qataris and non-Qataris equally. Its comprehensive efforts to provide healthcare service to migrants culminated in social justice. It reflects upon a well-planned and distributive social policy of Qatar. While social justice in COVID-19 vaccination is at bay across the Global North and Global South, Qatar has been embedded with a high form of social justice by vaccinating 87.6% of its residents. As mentioned before, expatriates constituted 88% of its total population and 95% of the total labor force. Due to Qatar's non-discriminatory national vaccination policy, expatriates are supposedly received a higher percentage of vaccination. In another term, out of approximately 2 million expatriates, more than 1.7 million are supposed to be vaccinated which is highly praiseworthy in the aftermath of global discrepancy thereon.

An analysis of pre-COVID and during COVID-19 situation of Qatar proffer two insights and lessons. First, systematic investment in developing and consolidating social development institutions (notably health) and the maintenance of a sound and client-focused health policy have been instrumental in taming the COVID-19 and boosting up social justice. Second, long-range strategically focused preparation, mainly in the form of careful formulation and delivery of social & development plans, especially those linked to SDGs, has come in handy while addressing this disaster & eliminating the underlying incentives that act as a deterrent to social justice. In the wake of COVID-19, there are suggestions for the nations to prepare for the next pandemic. The Qatar example may provide useful clues in this regard.

Notes

• 1. For details, please see, Franklin D. Roosevelt Speeches: The Forgotten Man, April 7, 1932. Retrieved November 21, 2021, from https://publicpolicy.pepperdine.edu/academics/research/faculty-research/new-deal/roosevelt-speeches/fr040732.htmon.

• 2. WHO (World Health Organization). A report on Qatar's national response to COVID-19. Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://apps.who.int/gb/statements/WHA73_RESUMED/PDF/Qatar-13.2-14.pdf.

• 3. For details, please see, Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)/7039, News and Press Release. Retrieved December 8, 2021, from https://reliefweb.int/report/world/unequal-vaccine-distribution-self-defeating-world-health-organization-chief-tells.

• 4. For details, please see, law No. (1) of 2015 Amending Provisions of the Labour Law Promulgated by Law No. (14) of 2004. Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/102774/124352/F-1741839069/lawno1of2015amendinglabourlaw.pdf.

• 5. For details, please see, Law No. (17) of 2020 Determining the National Minimum Wage for Workers and Domestic Workers. Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---arabstates/---ro-beirut/documents/legaldocument/wcms_754880.pdf.

• 6. For details, please see, Law No.18 of 2020 amending certain provisions of Labour Law No. 14 of 2004. Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---arabstates/---ro-beirut/documents/legaldocument/wcms_754882.pdf.

• 7. For details, please see Law No.13 of 2018, amending some provisions of Law No. (21) of 2015, which regulates the entry and exit of expatriates and their residence. Retrieved January 1, 2022, from http://ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/MONOGRAPH/107340/132079/F620027197/QatarGB-Law%2013%20(2018)%20Ar%20Eng.revATfinal30Oct18.pdf.

• 8. For details, please see, Qatar Law No.15 of August 22, 2017 which relates to domestic workers. Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/MONOGRAPH/105099/128416/F-1438071320/QAT105099%20Eng.pdf).

• 9. For details, please see, Al Meezan Qatar Legal Portal, Qatar: Law No. 17 of 2018 Establishing the Workers’ Support and Insurance Fund. Retrieved November 20, 2021, from https://www.almeezan.qa/LawPage.aspx?id=7798&language=ar.