Keywords

15.1 Introduction

Cities, which house more than 50% of the global population, are key economic hubs. Cities account for 55.72% of the global population in 2019, and this figure is expected to increase to 68% by 2050. In the Arab region, the proportion of urban residents to the total population in 2019 was 59.2%, which is higher than the global average. Rapid urbanisation makes cities more susceptible to issues associated with growth and development, competitiveness, performance and livelihood, as well as potential strains on services and infrastructure (UN Habitat, 2021). From now until 2050, the developing world is predicted to account for 93% of the total growth with the majority of the growth in urban population occurring in medium-sized cities in Asia and Africa. More than 800 million people currently live in poverty-stricken localities with the majority residing in Africa, Asia and South America. Real estate ideas and values dominate the prevalent urbanisation model, where automobile service is the primary source of transportation. These claims are supported by innovative methodologies for ecological and system-based thinking in architectural, urban and landscape design as well as bottom-up models of urbanisation. Emerging ideas, such as citizen science, co-creation and community-led design, are propelling the social sciences to the forefront of research in terms of sustainable urban design (Grichting, 2018).

In addition, unplanned or poorly managed development coupled with unanticipated shocks and pressure (Abulibdeh & Zaidan, 2020) may place metropolitan systems under significant stress, which could result in long-term strains on fundamental infrastructure (UN Habitat, 2021). In general, the subsequent urban form is characterised by high degrees of zoning, tall buildings or superblocks, freeways, decorative landscapes (in contrast to functional and ecological landscapes) and a stark difference between formal (blocks and superblocks or gated residential areas) and informal living spaces (poverty-stricken localities, Grichting, 2018).

Alternatively, all member states of the UN accepted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in 2015. Since then, the majority of Arab nations have begun to connect national plans and objectives with the 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the Agenda (Katramiz et al., 2020). In addition, the Arab region is one of the world's most urbanised regions, which places cities in the region at risk of natural and man-made hazards as well as of various regional issues such as shrinking living spaces; conflicts and rentier economies; poverty and water scarcity; gender inequality; and unsustainable extraction patterns of resources and youth unemployment (UN ESCWA, 2020). To address these issues, numerous countries in the region pursue significant measures towards urban resilience and sustainable development, albeit at a slower rate than those of other regions. In addition, a number of nations, including Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, the State of Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, are undertaking local projects to develop SSCs by redeveloping the existing cities or constructing new ones (UN Habitat, 2021).

Furthermore, the worldwide demographic weight is shifting inexorably towards cities as the predominant organising force of human coexistence. The administration of large and small cities is the driving force of the modern time, which is an aspect of urban planning that inefficiently stifles human development or that can be exploited to create prosperity and distribute advantages in the search for social tranquillity and individual wellbeing. Along with economies of scale, smart infrastructure underpinned by new finance mechanisms and integrated planning can offer optimum outcomes for beneficial cohabitation in cities, according to the State of Arab Cities 2020 Executive Summary (UN Habitat, 2020). The shift in the urbanisation model of the twenty-first century presents a unique set of possibilities for the development of smart cities. Moreover, advancements in the twenty-first century support the transition from sustainability evaluation to smart city objectives. Discussions on SSCs increasingly influence global debates on the future of urban development. However, very little is known about the concept of smart sustainable urbanism despite the abundance of examples of the characteristics that comprise a smart or sustainable city. The reason underlying this notion is the lack of definitional specificity and corresponding predisposition towards self-congratulation. In the face of ever-increasing urbanisation, new technological advancements fundamentally alter the manner in which cities are structured, planned, designed, operated, managed and governed using smart and sustainable methods (Al-Khalifa, 2021). The concept of the smart city and its related technological initiatives serve as a catalyst for enhancing the living standards of urban residents. These initiatives strengthen the digital intelligence of the economy, urban infrastructure, environment, social capital and other facets of the city, which, thus, enhances the interaction between citizens and their urban environment (Al-Khalifa, 2021).

The achievement of smart and sustainable urbanism is one of the more prominent themes of the research on urban planning worldwide (Al-Khalifa, 2021). SSCs are rapidly impacting global debates about future prospects of urban development. Various terms, such as digital, ecological, information, eco-, resilient, intelligent, green, sustainable, smart, knowledge, liveable and zero- and low-carbon cities and even combinations of these terms are used in today's urban policy, design and planning discourses. Despite the fact that sustainable city is the most commonly used word in the literature, it is also the largest and most interconnected (De Jong et al., 2015). The term smart city refers to the use of advanced technologies to elevate living standards and the economic development of a city. Cities combine clever technologies and inventive design to provide inhabitants with high-quality services and to revamp urban spaces to enhance the standards of living. Over a thousand smart cities have been established globally, primarily in Europe, North America and Asia (Ghofrani et al., 2021; Zaidan et al., 2022). However, this term lacks a clear-cut definition in academics and industry.

The purpose of the smart city exceeds the concepts of intelligent, digital and informed cities, as it examines technologies as a better approach for assisting people live better lives and make cities function efficiently. The objective of urban sustainability is to achieve economic, social, environmental, cultural and political effectiveness. As part of the smart city agenda, this concept emphasises the use of locally accessible resources and digital advances to develop appropriate, resilient and self-sufficient cities. In terms of urban sustainability, a clear connection is observed between smart and sustainable urbanism (Al-Khalifa, 2021). However, the literature demonstrates a gap between these two concepts, which highlights the need to develop a regional understanding of smart sustainable urbanism that considers regional circumstances and value judgements of communities.

15.2 Beyond Oil: The Inevitability of Smart and Sustainable Urbanism

Smart and sustainable urban development strategies are of key importance in rentier states given the distinct issues present in the urban landscape of various oil-rich rentier states. Rentier states are characterised by generating a significant portion of their income from the rent of local resources to foreign clients. Typically, the revenue is obtained through the extraction and sale of precious natural resources that are completely under the authority of the government, which is primarily directed by a ruling elite group (Kaya et al., 2019). Revenue from oil and gas resources is utilised to fund governmental budgets as well as infrastructure projects in order to improve the quality of life for citizens, and act as a tool for wealth redistribution. These investments in infrastructure include road, electricity supply, transportation, school, hospital and telecommunications projects. Owing to the substantial revenues generated from oil and gas resources, rentier states in the GCC region have witnessed an unparalleled level of economic development, accompanied with rapid urbanisation and motorisation (Azzali & Tomba, 2018). This has resulted in new social and business opportunities for the local populace, as well as significant problems for the local governments, particularly in terms of sustainable urban planning.

These major issues pertain to significant conurbations surrounded by urban sprawl, deep fragmentation of the urban landscape and an overall lack of a comprehensive master plan for urban development (Zaidan & Abulibdeh, 2021). The urban planning process of the GCC rentier states has been largely based on western patterns with little focus on the unplanned urban evolution and social complexity of the city. In addition, land speculation has contributed to a pronounced distortion of the planned organisational structure of the urban environment. This has further led to poor land zoning and prevalence of private residential land use ahead of recreational and public land use which are key aspects of urban living spaces (Furlan & Faggion, 2017). In the light of the major issues present in the urban living spaces of GCC rentier states and owing to an overall global shift towards sustainability, the governments and relevant policymakers of the GCC region have adopted smart and sustainable urban development strategies. In order to guide the transformation of their urban living spaces towards smart and sustainable cities, the GCC countries have formulated comprehensive visions (e.g. Qatar National Vision 2030, Abu Dhabi Policy Agenda 2030 and Dubai Plan 2021) accompanied by specific and technical documents (e.g. Qatar National Development Strategy 2018–2022, Qatar National Urban Master Plan, Plan Abu Dhabi 2030/Urban Structure Framework and Dubai 2020 Urban Master Plan) in order to achieve the aims of the visions through various initiatives (De Jong et al., 2019).

Major investments have been made in the development of new industrial trade zones that extend beyond oil and gas exploration, research and education/knowledge cities where high-tech innovation is cultivated for future generations to lean on, and liveable and smart urban living spaces where residents can reside in a comfortable and environmentally friendly manner. In addition, conglomerate spaces which serve multiple functions have emerged throughout the GCC region. For instance, Abu Dhabi’s Masdar City serves three functions: free economic zone, houses a world-class research institute and a world-renown sustainable city (De Jong et al., 2019). To adopt sustainable urbanism in the region, the GCC rentier states need a comprehensive and innovative urban planning strategy. This strategy should combine land use and strategic planning based on building national capacities, as well as a complete understanding of the social, cultural, and oil-dominated economies and community engagement (Zaidan & Abulibdeh, 2021).

Furthermore, rapid urbanisation has resulted in increased social and economic inequality (a widening of the wealth gap), an increase in informal urbanisation, poor standards of safety and the lack of appropriate governance in many rapidly urbanising countries. Increased urbanisation has exerted negative impact on the provision of fundamental infrastructure and services (e.g. water, sanitation and energy), which leads to a low proportion and quality of public spaces in low-density urban forms; overcrowding and traffic congestion; high rates of unemployment (more than 50% among young people); and an informal economy that can occasionally reach 70%. This scenario is also a reflection of a poor public sector, which does not stimulate agglomeration or urbanisation economies and results in the loss of the city of its primary role as a multiplier of wealth (Grichting, 2018).

Although cities and urbanisation in the twenty-first century face numerous obstacles, potential exists for the construction of sustainable cities and urban areas. Among societal and technological developments with the potential to positively affect change in an urbanised and urbanising world are access to technologies for communicating; gathering and sharing data; networks and citizen-driven initiatives; online learning and training; increase in the availability of micro-scale infrastructure to produce green energy (e.g. solar); clean water or food production; and new modes of financing (e.g. crowd funding, micro-credits and public–private partnerships, Grichting, 2018).

Efforts towards smart and sustainable urbanism are required to avert impending urban ecocide and advance towards post-anthropocentric urbanism, according to the research (Yigitcanlar, 2018). In the twenty-first century, the focus of sustainable city planning is shifting to smart city objectives. Conversely, a concrete definition of a smart or sustainable urban environment is lacking (Höjer & Wangel, 2015). Sustainability and smartness benefit from international debates on their respective interpretations and definitions (Maclaren, 1996). The literature reveals that diverse societies should possess slightly or significantly varied understandings of smart and sustainable urban forms based on their economic, social, political, environmental and cultural characteristics as well as the value judgements of their society (Al-Khalifa, 2021).

Projects and initiatives towards SSCs will only succeed if all stakeholders, including citizens, engage with one another and actively participate in realising the principles and goals of SSCs. Thus, maintaining a balance amongst the diverse needs of community stakeholders should be prioritised for the ideologies of SSCs. Therefore, efforts towards SSCs should not be restricted to the comprehension of local legislators, enthusiasts and governance populists. If city planners make smart and sustainable decisions, then the living standards of residents could significantly improve (Al-Khalifa, 2021). As a result, smart and conscientious residents are an absolute necessity for SSCs. A smart city prioritises smart citizens over the adoption of smart technologies, and numerous efforts are ongoing to educate city residents on the utilisation of public information and actions and procedures that shape their community and support infrastructure (Roseland, 2012). Today, citizens are encouraged to learn more about participating in the design and planning of neighbourhoods and cities. Various data, scenarios and models, which are influenced by the urban environment and communication technologies, could be used to engage citizens on-site or remotely (Al-Khalifa, 2021).

15.3 Human-Driven Urban Planning: Economy, Society, Technology and Policy

Since the discovery of oil and gas in the Gulf region, strategies and policies towards energy management have focused on the exploitation of fossil fuel to meet local energy needs and to export this valuable and highly profitable resource to the rest of the globe. In the light of the worldwide push to cut carbon emissions, scholars have anticipated that energy policies in the Gulf will undergo drastic changes (Gritchting, 2018). Recently, Gulf countries have issued pledges towards carbon neutrality in line with its projected benefits and global inclination towards it. The majority of these stances have been adopted shortly before the 26th UN Climate Change Conference (COP26) and varied in level of commitment (Gritchting, 2018). Such commitments have been considered hindered by several obstacles that lack further examination in the literature. In terms of achieving a zero-carbon city or community, the deployment of solely technology and technology-driven solutions is insufficient. Thus, engaging society in sustainability goals is vital for the success of these solutions and, ultimately, for improving the performance of urban sustainability (Al-Saidi & Zaidan, 2020).

Although carbon dioxide emissions, which are energy related, may have decreased in 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and the downturn in oil prices, a comeback could restore the long-term trend. Consequently, governments worldwide are addressing major issues related to the sustainability of numerous sectors such as construction, transportation, industry, health care and education. Moreover, a growing strain is observed on key resources, such as energy, water and food (Abulibdeh et al., 2019), with the increase in the global population, which could result in a substantial carbon footprint on the natural environment. With their anticipated population growth as one of the highest in the world and extreme reliance on hydrocarbon energy sources, GCC countries are at the forefront of these increasing demands (Gritchting, 2018). Transitioning to zero-carbon emission is a particularly complex topic, because it involves the interaction of many factors that impact the demand and supply sides of the energy market. Effective zero-carbon transformation involves the active participation of every community entity. Social considerations and acceptance may hinder the adoption, extension and use of clean energy systems, which may affect the transition to a zero-carbon society. Studies that evaluate the social acceptability of transitioning into zero-carbon communities are essential for comprehending the social perspective of communities towards energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy technologies. For its successful implementation, zero-carbon technology must be promoted and implemented through participatory mechanisms in which social actors are actively involved.

Post-carbon cities have recently emerged from a break in the carbon-dependent urban system, which has led to the emergence of considerable amounts of anthropogenic greenhouse gases. To address numerous issues, such as the degradation of ecosystems, climate change, economic strains and social equity, this threat necessitates a complete overhaul in cognition about and planning interactions amongst energy, climate change and the society. Sustainable urban design and management involve striking a balance amongst several competing priorities, including those related to energy, the environment and the society as a whole. Consequently, urban design strategies for post-carbon cities must consider not only the control, efficiency and speed of complex infrastructure systems but also the behaviour of residents and their response to building performance and available urban services. Moreover, the general public should be informed, involved and self-sufficient in terms of energy, which include not only individual consumers but also prosumers who generate their power for personal use when feasible.

Gulf nations incorporated climate change threats into resilience-building processes and urban planning (UNDP, 2018). For instance, the ruler of Dubai incorporated guidelines for green buildings in 2007 to improve water conservation and energy efficiency in newly constructed buildings in the Emirate. According to UN Habitat (2021), the Housing Minister of Bahrain announced in January 2021 that the construction of new towns will, henceforth, be green and intelligent. This initiative was proposed in accordance with the relevant goals of the United Nations 2030 Agenda, particularly SDG 11, by utilising eco-friendly materials, providing open green spaces and planting trees along streets. Another example is Masdar City, which is located near Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates and holds the claim of being the first fully eco-friendly city in the world. Developed from the ground up, it is one of the newest SSCs in the region with zero emission, low waste, access to smart services and green energy use.

As the State of Qatar prepares for the 2022 FIFA World Cup and work towards the goals of Qatar National Vision 2030, the population and economy of the country have increased at unprecedented rates. However, hydrocarbons are the country's sole source of energy. This notion is problematic, because increased economic and environmental consequences are due to the significant reliance of the country on conventional energy sources (Charfeddine et al., 2018). As a result, environmental goals and the development of environmental stewardship and alternative energy sources figure prominently in Qatar's vision statement. The nation possesses an opportunity to reduce carbon emission and create techniques and technology that can play a significant role in attaining global emission-reduction goals without undergoing a fundamental economic restructuring. Improved renewable energy management systems, new technology adoption and a shift to zero-carbon energy systems are necessary conditions for achieving the goals of emission reduction. Moreover, energy efficiency and carbon emission reduction can be achieved at low overall costs by using zero-carbon technologies and systems in Qatar. In addition, the country can serve as a platform for the global development of zero-carbon energy technology. Despite an increase in energy consumption, Qatar intends to decrease its carbon emission (Zaidan et al., 2021, 2022). This goal gives the nation the motivation to adapt and develop new energy technologies and techniques that will serve as sources of sustainable economic growth. Zero-carbon energy systems and technologies are essential for Qatar to achieve its economic and environmental goals. Thus, developing policies that encourage their adoption and integration is imperative. Accordingly, strategies for smart energy have become a national priority in the State of Qatar, where increased government funding encourages a community of data scientists, technologists and key city stakeholders to take advantage of the growing digital revolutions, low-cost sensors and development partnerships to create novel and socially beneficial solutions. Despite the acknowledgement of this large community cooperation, such measures are industry- and government-driven and place extremely less emphasis on creating community demands that are all inclusive and that consider the capacity of the community to profit from and utilise smart energy technologies. Evidently, community institutions are largely side-lined due to the ongoing discourse on smart energy communities (Zaidan et al., 2022).

15.3.1 The Proposed Framework: Smart Sustainable Cities in the Gulf States

Two primary approaches to the smart city concept are suggested. The first is a techno-centric strategy that bestows information and communication technology (ICT) with a central role and concentrates on cutting-edge technology and digital infrastructure. For instance, Harrison et al. (2010) defined smart cities as a concept that combines real-time data into a computing platform to provide services through the implementation of visualisation, modelling, optimisation and information processing. According to Hancke et al. (2012), smart cities operate in an environment that is sustainable and intelligent due to the use of sophisticated monitoring and control technologies. Furthermore, the infrastructure and public services of cities are seamlessly interwoven (Zaidan et al., 2022). The second strategy is a human-centric approach that highlights the importance of social and human capital in smart cities. Numerous authors emphasise the importance of human capital and education in urban development and sustainability. For example, Coe et al.’s (2001) definition of smart communities highlights the important role of social and environmental capital in urban development. Consequently, engagement in decision-making processes, social inclusion and community affairs are essential elements for achieving social and environmental goals. The relationship between a highly educated workforce and smart cities is the subject of a few studies (Zaidan et al., 2022), as growth in employment, economic progress and technological advancement are dependent on this relationship (Eger, 2009). Moreover, social innovation and the significance of human elements and communities are the subject of considerable discussion. Innovation in urban regeneration is heavily reliant on the involvement of local communities. Hence, the foundation of smart communities is built on the synergy of the use of infrastructure and technology that is technically possible and relevant to every region. Nonetheless, considering crucial characteristics, such as affordability, acceptance, privacy and coherence, is vital to the discussion on the concept of ‘community’. In addition, the term ‘smart community’ refers to a concept that incorporates cutting-edge technologies and infrastructures geared towards achieving sustainable development (Zaidan et al., 2022). As a result, smart communities render possible the fostering of social innovation for governments, infrastructure and technological forces. Consequently, local stakeholders, including non-profit organisations, corporations and individuals, can be involved in the development of new approaches for addressing issues related to wellbeing, inclusiveness and growth.

SSCs are the result of the efforts of numerous stakeholders. The literature describes the utilisation of stakeholder perceptions to establish key performance indicators for the achievement of smart and sustainable urbanism. By establishing the necessary guidelines and procedures and by ensuring that mitigation plans, remedial measures and implementation activities are conducted in a comprehensive manner, statutory law-making authorities play an important role in the development of smart sustainable communities (Al-Khalifa, 2021). The study proposes a framework for SSCs, which is described in the following section.

Currently, smart cities are being implemented to improve urban life in a wide range of areas, including economy and society (e.g. cultural heritage preservation, digital education, entrepreneurship and human capital development), in addition to government (e.g. transparency, e-government and e-governance) and daily life (e.g. public space management, cultural preservation, social inclusion, public health, public safety and pollution management) and smart building (e.g. waste management, food and agriculture, renewable energies, intelligent street lighting and smart grids) (Zaidan et al., 2022). Thus, moving from connected communities to a connected world necessitates a shift from community targets and plans to those at the city level. This scenario is extremely challenging due to the exponential increase in complexities, especially given the inevitable inclusion of social and policy factors on a large scale. To achieve the transformation of a connected network of smart communities into large-scale smart cities, the transition at the city level should be undertaken in a distributed and progressive manner. Public engagement, asset management and possession, available resources, varied and versatile energy demands and scale are all shared characteristics of communities considered capable of a smart and sustainable evolution. As a consequence, constructing a system that is resource-driven and incorporates its residents is conceivable. A good example of the economic and social benefits that can be seen at the community and city levels is the transition involving communities. In addition, big business centres, transportation hubs and ports exert a large environmental impact and are extremely vulnerable (Zaidan et al., 2021, 2022) (Fig. 15.1).

Fig. 15.1
A flowchart illustrates the framework of smart sustainable cities of urban planning and policy and governance under 3 aspects, economy, society, and technology.

Framework of smart sustainable cities

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To achieve SSCs, formulating new and effective strategies for zero-carbon systems based on a comprehensive and thorough understanding of the components that can be utilised during the design is crucial. The initial phase of the investigation consists of conducting an exhaustive assessment of socioeconomic elements that exert an impact on the transformation to a zero-carbon community. Based on a preliminary analysis of the relevant literature, it is shown that the socioeconomic factors that are driving the shift towards zero-carbon communities may be broken down into the following categories.

Demographic factors, such as gender, age, education, work status and income, influence the decision to implement pro-environmental policies (Ghofrani et al., 2021).

Education is one of the most crucial factors. For example, according to Mills and Schleich (2009), heads of households in Germany with post-secondary education are more likely to employ solar water heating for their homes. In a further study, Mills and Schleich (2012) stated that university-educated households are more likely to employ energy-efficient technologies. Sardianou and Genoudi (2013) proposed that educated Greeks are more likely to turn to renewable forms of energy. Moreover, Michelsen and Madlener (2012) suggested that German homeowners with a university degree are more inclined to use residential heating systems that are based on renewable energy. Niamir et al. (2020) indicated that highly educated households in two European locations are more likely to invest in home insulation and solar panels as well as to switch to green energy suppliers.

Furthermore, gender influences the decision to pursue environmentally friendly strategies. Although the literature remains inconclusive regarding the effect of gender on energy efficiency, a few studies indicate that females are more inclined to implement energy-conserving measures. According to a meta-analysis conducted by Zelezny et al. (2000), women are significantly more likely than men to engage in environmentally conscious activities. However, other studies reveal opposite findings. For example, evidence exists that men are more likely than women to instal solar panels, as reported by Niamir et al. (2020).

Additionally, age influences the level of reliance on green energy. Older families who are apprehensive about their return on investment in green energy are less likely than younger households to demonstrate pro-environmental attitudes (Nair et al., 2010). Nevertheless, certain studies (Barr et al., 2005; Long, 1993) indicate that elderly homeowners are typically more energy efficient than younger homeowners. In terms of income, studies argue that households with high incomes are more willing to invest in renewable energy. For example, Sardianou and Genoudi (2013) report that the probability of adopting renewable energy policies is strongly correlated with monthly income. Moreover, Sidiras and Koukios (2004) suggest that homeowners with high incomes are more inclined to invest in solar hot water technology. Conversely, Niamir et al. (2020) did not report a positive correlation between income and investment in home insulation and solar panel instalation.

Psychological motivators of the transition to zero-carbon emission: This category consists of two factors, namely, social norms and personal norms.

  • Social norms. They are defined as ‘perceived social pressures from significant others and/or beliefs about how significant others expect one to act in a given situation’ (Chen et al., 2017) and influence the degree of the reliance of individuals on policies that protect the environment. For example, Allcott (2011) demonstrated that societal norms in the United States impact energy efficiency. For example, the author presented the case of ‘OPOWER’, is a corporation that sends letters to homeowners, compares their energy compensation to those of their neighbours and offers advice on the reduction of energy use. The study proposed that these letters contributed to low energy use. Wang et al. (2011) pointed to a correlation between societal standards in China and increased energy conservation in households. Similarly, Chen et al. (2016) found a positive correlation between societal norms and people's intentions in China to use solar water heating systems and automobiles that use non-fossil fuel energy (Ghofrani et al., 2021). According to Han et al. (2010), perceived social standards motivate consumer to select environmentally friendly hotels.

  • Personal norms. In terms of energy efficiency, personal norms can be characterised as a sense of moral obligation to pursue pro-environmental conduct (Huijts et al., 2012). Werff et al. (2019) found that households in the Netherlands with stronger personal norms are more likely to demonstrate an energy conservation mindset. Moreover, Niamir et al. (2020) revealed that people in the Netherlands and Spain are more likely to spend money on energy-efficient appliances due to personal norms.

  • Cultural barriers to low-carbon transport and buildings (e.g. masculinity, ethnic prejudice, social status, social exclusion, vandalism and thermal comfort (Sovacool & Griffiths, 2020). As an example, social status is a major cultural barrier to shared transportation in GCC nations. Indeed, car ownership in the GCC is a sign of wealth and social status. In the United States and Australia, aggressive driving and speeding are primarily attributable to masculinity and machismo, which result in substantial carbon dioxide emission. These cultural factors hinder the shift to a zero-carbon economy.

  • Structural factors, such as the type, age and size of buildings, are key contributing factors for the transition towards a zero-carbon economy. For example, Mills and Schleich (2009) presented evidence that older homes are typically less energy efficient. Niamir et al. (2020) found that homeowners are more inclined to invest in renewable energy compared with apartment owners. New building owners are more (less) inclined to install solar panels (house insulation). In addition, the authors identified a positive relationship between the size of the home and investments in insulation and solar panels. This finding was consistent with the rationale that homeowners of large homes have high incomes and can, therefore, afford to make investments in renewable energy sources. Additionally, large homes typically have a larger rooftop area, which renders installing solar panel systems possible for homeowners.

  • Financial policy factors include the cost of adopting zero-carbon electricity for consumers as well as carbon neutral products and buildings (Cheng et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2011). These factors are considered to be among the most influential in determining the transition to zero-carbon energy. Lowering these costs and facilitating the transition to a zero-carbon economy are possible by reducing value-added tax on energy-saving appliances and technologies as well as programmes that provide customers with credit for the purchase of energy-efficient cooling and heating systems (e.g. Bulgaria). Multiple studies provide evidence supporting this viewpoint. For example, Sardianou and Genoudi (2013) find that tax deductions and subsidies exert a positive effect on the use of renewable energy by households. Li et al. (2016) demonstrate that government subsidies and advantageous tax policies in China encourage consumers to use new energy cars. Furthermore, Wang et al. (2011) reveal that the majority of respondents are more inclined to select energy-saving options if the government provides financial assistance in the form of subsidies. Households with high incomes can afford to invest in green energy; thus, financial measures, such as subsidies, credits and tax breaks, will not exert a significant impact on investment in zero-carbon technologies for this group. Instead, financial measures should be channelled towards low-income households. Imposing a charge on fossil fuel may also encourage consumers to make the move towards cleaner forms of energy. This notion is further supported by Sardianou and Genoudi (2013), who suggested that people are more inclined to invest in green energy with the increase in the price of fossil fuel.

Alternatively, when the government plays an active role in building SSC projects, the influence of growth becomes significant in terms of the smart governance component of the framework. In addition, the literature reveals the necessity of viewing smart governance from a different angle. For a long time, specialists with backgrounds in information technology and computer science dominated the literature on e-governance. Nevertheless, the current issues associated with the creation of smart and sustainable communities demand a step back and the adoption of a holistic view of smart governance. E-governance must be evaluated from the perspective of urban domain specialists, such as experts in urban development, urban design and planning, climate change, carbon accounting, energy and water governance and the public realm (Al-Khalifa, 2021). As a result, the framework for SSCs may help to define smart and sustainable urbanism in the Gulf region and to determine the most important themes, factors and components required to better understand the level of smartness and sustainability at present in the urban environment with a focus on Qatar.

Reaping the benefits of innovative thinking, systematic stakeholder collaboration and bright scientific approaches (i.e. smart solutions) is possible for Qatar. Such benefits include the effective management of population surge, boost in economic development and improvement in the wellbeing of the people. A dire need also exists for scalable solutions that utilise many advantages offered through the appropriate use of ICT. Currently, Qatar possesses a unique opportunity to significantly improve its entire critical infrastructure, which includes the systematic development, integration and monitoring of its roads, railway network, airports, communication systems and buildings (MICT, 2014). This step will enable Qatar to effectively maximise the use of its resources and provide the highest possible level of service to residents while preserving the integrity of its security.

The most important benefit of smart cities is that they increase the quality of life of residents. Social, economic and environmental benefits can be gained if urban issues are addressed using smart approaches and technologically enabled solutions (e.g. safety and transportation). Furthermore, the current study suggests that officials must simultaneously identify and address the most pressing urban issues while formulating a futuristic vision for the nation. To illustrate, the transportation sector is a top concern in Qatar; therefore, the government may seek immediate and smart solutions to the increasing traffic difficulties. The development of smart cities can lead to the creation of new services and jobs. The overall economy will gain from the improved allocation of resources, utilisation, innovation and an enhanced entrepreneurship ecosystem, which offers additional opportunities. The smart and sustainable features of cities can also be promoted to improve competitive advantage in terms of location and attract new enterprises and talents. Currently, cities in Qatar can be developed in an environmentally sound manner with initiatives that enable waste minimisation, low-carbon footprint and the use of renewable forms of energy. Residents will enjoy better quality of life and a safer environment if cities are more environmentally friendly. Conversely, developing cities in Qatar with the consideration of cultural sensitivity is of equal importance. In non-western cities that experience rapid westernisation, recognising the proponents of sustainability is essential. Sustainable urbanism in Gulf cities emphasises the importance of achieving sustainability as a cultural asset by identifying members of society, organisations and businesses who possess a culture of resourcefulness and resilience as internalised values and the competencies required to advance these methods. In addition, exploring the potential contribution of Old Doha to this dialogue and whether or not all generations can be represented at the table is essential (Gritchting, 2018; Zaidan, 2019).

15.3.1.1 Challenges and Strategies of SSCs in Gulf States

Analysis of the proposed projects in the Gulf region reveals that large-scale developments will continue in a manner that cannot be maintained in a sustainable manner in the long run (UN Habitat, 2021; Zaidan et al. 2019). The current patterns illustrate that infrastructure planning in the cities of the Arabian Gulf needs to be reoriented towards a compact, linked, people-centric and low-carbon infrastructure. Furthermore, systemic and integrated infrastructure planning is required for future projects, such as highways, airports, mega-developments and new cities, to manage the interdependencies and links amongst various sectors, as well as to meet current and long-term needs. Such a vision would entail small-scale initiatives that cater to city inhabitants, improve quality of life and reduce entrenched socioeconomic differences (UN Habitat, 2021). The outcome is a clean and compact city in the Arab Gulf committed to providing equitable welfare and opportunities for all people, including future generations, while ensuring no one is left behind.

The complexity of Gulf cities is revealed in numerous aspects of the local government, including governance, policy and interlinkage and interaction among sectors. Conversely, other sectors may be unaware of the complex interplay between their activities and those of other sectors in the context of city development and operations. As a result, stakeholders may find that agreeing on implementation strategies for smart solutions is difficult. An overarching vision and a forum for collaboration among all stakeholders is required in the Gulf region, where various sectors may collaborate to discuss challenges, exchange ideas and develop solutions together. This forum will support all stakeholders in their efforts to become smarter. Collaboration is a crucial feature, because smart cities cannot be produced by a single entity. Smart initiatives nearly always necessitate the participation of various stakeholders, as evidenced by international best practices. To facilitate the flow of information, a collaborative and collective command and control centre is required; currently, each organisation operates independently, which is an unproductive method. Furthermore, several nations, including those in the European Union, have put in place good governance procedures to foster public–private partnerships and citizen participation. Hence, allowing sectors and stakeholders to share experiences and success stories has endorsed innovation and the generation of new ideas.

Alternatively, concerns regarding confidentiality and privacy must be resolved for types of procedures related to smart cities to be implemented in Qatar. Formulating a government policy that promotes access and collaboration is critical; otherwise, organisations will struggle to become transparent. Concern also emerges about the potential exploitation of sensitive data if they are widely available and open, such as those on the energy consumption or water usage of the country. Nonetheless, information from one sector can exert a substantial impact on and provide value for other sectors. Consequently, the government must implement efficient privacy and security-related policies and methods to help mitigate these issues.

Another challenge is the divergent perspectives among stakeholders on the elements that constitute smart. In Qatar, for instance, the perspectives of an architect and an environmentalist may greatly differ. No consensus exists on the requirements for smart cities, and no consistency is in place with regard to policies and standards. This difficulty reaffirms the previously indicated need for a smart city organisation in Qatar to coordinate all related issues. During city planning, the concept of SSCs must be integrated. The transformation of an ordinary city into a smart one necessitates the incorporation of ICT, and its proponents must collaborate with government bodies and relevant political stakeholders, such as city councils, national institutions and urban planning authorities, which hold the potential to influence the outcome of ICT initiatives (MICT, 2014). The seamless implementation of smart city endeavours heavily relies on institutional readiness, which includes the lack of legal and regulatory obstacles. Interoperability between systems and entities is another corresponding issue. Good governance is required to meet the demands not only of entities but also of people and inhabitants. This aspect can be aided by marketing that targets users that promote and provide valuable information on the adoption of smart technologies. Below are certain challenges and counterstrategies for SSCs in the Gulf region (Fig. 15.2).

Fig. 15.2
A hexagon diagram illustrates 6 different challenges and counterstrategies. It includes National vision, conflicting methodologies and resistance, interdependencies, skills and attitudes, security concerns, and costs.

Adopted from Zaidan et al. (2022) and MICT (2014)

Challenges and counterstrategies.

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Scholars acknowledge that the efficient use of data will detect and remedy problems. Health care and energy are only two of the many areas in which Qatar possesses a wealth of information at its disposal. However, merely collecting data is insufficient if they are not effectively used and shared. In this regard, Qatar lags behind. Thus, mechanisms are required for the analysis and application of data. Initial investment in smart city solutions may result in a hike in expenses, which residents may not appreciate. However, although smart cities may initially result in a short-term increase in the cost of services for inhabitants, smart city solutions will eventually result in efficient and cost-effective techniques (MICT, 2014). Despite this notion, advancing the smart city agenda through governmental stakeholders and real estate developers in Qatar may be profitable given the need for investment. Qatar must establish a futuristic vision for the city that aims to improve the lives of residents, who will live in a hyper-connected, high-speed and zero-emission metropolis, which is similar to Barcelona, a leader in the smart city movement.

15.4 Conclusion

The examination of the manner in which governments and societies shape the urban future of the region now indicates that many Gulf countries are embarking on massive infrastructure and megaproject efforts in addition to the emergence of new smart cities. Despite the fact that this study focuses on all factors necessary to create smart cities that will improve the quality of life in cities of the Gulf, adopting a proactive role in implementing supportive policies and initiatives and coordinating efforts is imperative for governments in the Gulf, particularly in Qatar, to ensure that the necessary ingredients for success are in place, including collaboration, uniform standards, data sharing and a comprehensive national vision. Stakeholders seek the actions of the government to launch a strategy and facilitate the subsequent collaboration. In this manner, it gains attention and goodwill from all stakeholders to construct a governance model that guarantees adherence to a shared national vision. On the other hand, human-oriented urban planning is a requirement for post-oil urbanism in Gulf states and represent an unavoidable alternative for the development of SSCs. Uncertainties will increase when society, which is at the core of the smart transformation to zero-carbon community, is unengaged.

A bottom-up approach is required to acquire a holistic understanding of society, its constraints, driving forces, motivations, adaptability and acceptability as well as the role of human factors in the transition to smart communities and smart cities. Simply put, no tangible and sustainable solutions will be observed without society engagement. Decision- and policymakers in Gulf states may endeavour to bridge gaps between the expected and actual outcomes of smart transformation policies, if the role of socioeconomic and behavioural dimensions in consumption patterns is considered mainly in regions that host high proportions of migrant communities with diverse cultures and ethnicities. Technology-driven solutions for SSCs must be supplemented by human-driven solutions to enable society to become aligned with the goals for national strategic sustainability, particularly in reducing the carbon footprint of Gulf nations by curbing the demand on the energy sector.

Lastly, effective regulations and an acceptable legal framework must be formulated for the successful use of ICT in stimulating progress in the creation of smart cities. Furthermore, Qatar may need to embrace an integrated strategy based on the premise that human and social capital in conjunction with technology create a suitable ecosystem, which fosters a continuous process of development and innovation. Knowledge-based activities, institutional structures for the development of innovation and social cooperation and digital infrastructure unite to form smart cities (i.e. ICT infrastructure, tools and applications). As a result, the concept of smart cities refers to a setting that holds the potential to combine elements of sustainable and smart urbanism and competitiveness through the incorporation of many aspects of urban development (i.e. social, economic, environment, governance, and people and mobility). The focus should not be limited to the impact of ICT drivers on urban development. The definitions of smart communities share three concepts, namely, processes (networking of multiple participants), methods of communication (ICT, technology and network architecture) and desired outcomes (public involvement or others).