Abstract
In recent years, the advanced techniques have provided powerful tools for characterizing materials at micro- and nanoscales. This chapter reviews the developing history, test principle, parameter setting, and data analysis of a few techniques for measuring the microstructures and the small-scale mechanical properties of cementitious materials, including NI/MI, SPM, nanoscratch, SEM, X-ray CT, and MIP techniques. The instrumented indentation techniques can measure the mechanical properties at the micrometer and nanometer scales. The SPM technique can characterize the mechanical properties as well as the thickness of individual phases under the non-destructive high-resolution conditions. A new loading mode of the constant vertical loading rate is proposed for continuous fracture properties measurement by nanoscratch technique. The content of this chapter can deepen the understanding of current advanced techniques applied to cementitious materials for testing conducted at micro scale.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Akono, A. T., Randall, N. X., & Ulm, F. J. (2012). Experimental determination of the fracture toughness via microscratch tests: Application to polymers, ceramics, and metals. Journal of Materials Research, 27(2), 485–493.
Akono, A. T., & Ulm, F. J. (2014). An improved technique for characterizing the fracture toughness via scratch test experiments. Wear, 313(1–2), 117–124.
Akono, A. T., & Ulm, F. J. (2017). Microscopic toughness of viscous solids via scratching: From amorphous polymers to gas shale. Journal of Nanomechanics and Micromechanics, 7(3), 04017009.
Allison, P. G., Moser, R. D., Weiss, C. A., Malone, P. G., & Morefield, S. W. (2012). Nanomechanical and chemical characterization of the interface between concrete, glass–ceramic bonding enamel and reinforcing steel. Construction and Building Materials, 37, 638–644.
Ambrose, J. (1973). Computerized transverse axial scanning of the brain. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 66(8), 833–834.
Asif, S. A., Wahl, K. J., Colton, R. J., & Warren, O. L. (2001). Quantitative imaging of nanoscale mechanical properties using hybrid nanoindentation and force modulation. Journal of Applied Physics, 90(3), 1192–1200.
Bager, D. H., & Sellevold, E. J. (1975). Mercury porosimetry of hardened cement paste: The influence of particle size. Cement and Concrete Research, 5, 171–177.
Balooch, G., Marshall, G. W., Marshall, S. J., Warren, O. L., Asif, S. A. S., & Balooch, M. (2004). Evaluation of a new modulus mapping technique to investigate microstructural features of human teeth. Journal of Biomechanics, 37, 1223–1232.
Baruchel, J., Buffiere, J. Y., Cloetens, P., Di Michiel, M., Ferrie, E., Ludwig, W., Maire, E., & Salvo, L. (2006). Advances in synchrotron radiation microtomography. Scripta Materialia, 55(1), 41–46.
Bhushan, B., Gupta, B. K., & Azarianb, M. H. (1995). Nanoindentation, microscratch, friction and wear studies of coatings for contact recording applications. Wear, 181, 743–758.
Binning, G., Rohrer, H., Gerber, Ch., & Weibel, E. (1982). Surface studies by scanning tunneling microscopy. Physical Review Letters, 49, 57.
Binnig, G., Quate, C. F., & Gerber, C. (1986). Atomic force microscope. Physical Review Letters, 56, 930–933.
Bristowe, P. D., Crocker, A. G., & Norgett, M. J. (1974). The structure of twin boundaries in body centred cubic metals. Journal of Physics f: Metal Physics, 4(11), 1859.
Broers, A. N. (1965). Selective ion beam etching in the scanning electron microscope. University of Cambridge, Ph.D. thesis.
Charitidis, C., Panayiotatos, Y., & Logothetidis, S. (2003). A quantitative study of the nano-scratch behavior of boron and carbon nitride films. Diamond and Related Materials, 12(3–7), 1088–1092.
Chen, J. J., Sorelli, L., Vandamme, M., Ulm, F. J., & Chanvillard, G. (2010). A Coupled nanoindentation/SEM-EDS study on low water/cement ratio portland cement paste: Evidence for C-S–H/Ca(OH)2 nanocomposites. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 93(5), 1484–1493.
Constantinides, G., Chandran, K. S. R., Ulm, F. J., & Van Vliet, K. J. (2006). Grid indentation analysis of composite microstructure and mechanics: Principles and validation. Materials Science and Engineering A-Structural Materials Properties Microstructure and Processing, 430(1–2), 189–202.
Constantinides G., Ulm F. J. (2006). Invariant mechanical properties of calcium-silicat-hydrates (C-S-H) in cement-based materials: Instrumented nanoindentation and microporomechanical modeling. Cambridge, MA, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Ph.D. thesis.
Constantinides, G., & Ulm, F. J. (2007). The nanogranularnature of C-S-H. Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 55, 64–90.
Cook, R. A., & Hover, K. C. (1991). Experiments on the contact angle between mercury and hardened cement paste. Cement and Concrete Research, 21, 1165–1175.
Cormack, A. M. (1963). Representation of a function by its line integrals, with some radiological applications. Journal of Applied Physics, 34(9), 2722–2727.
Cormack, A. M. (1964). Representation of a function by its line integrals, with some radiological applications. II. Journal of Applied Physics, 35(10), 2908–2913.
Dang, F., Lei, G., Ding, W., Ma, H., & Chen, H. (2015). Study on the CT meso-test experiment of static and dynamic failure processes of concrete. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 34(1), 189–196. (In Chinese).
Davydov, D., Jirásek, M., & Kopecký, L. (2011). Critical aspect of nano-indentation technique in application to hardened cement paste. Cement and Concrete Research, 41, 20–29.
De Chiffre, L., Carmignato, S., Kruth, J. P., Schmitt, R., & Weckenmann, A. (2014). Industrial applications of computed tomography. Annals CIRP, 63(2), 655–677.
Delesse, M. (1847). Procédé mécanique pour déterminer la composition des roches. Comptes Rendus De L’académie Des Sciences, 25, 544–547.
Diamond, S., & Dolch, W. L. (1972). Generalised log-normal distribution of pore sizes in hydrated cement paste. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 38, 234–244.
Diamond, S. (2000). Mercury porosimetry: An inappropriate method for the measurement of pore size distributions in cement-based materials. Cement and Concrete Research, 30(10), 1517–1525.
Drake, L. C. (1949). Pore-size distribution in porous materials—application of high pressure mercury porosimeter to cracking catalysts. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 41(4), 780–785.
Everhart, T. E., & Thornley, R. F. M. (1960). Wide-band detector for micro-microampere low-energy electron currents. Journal of Scientific Instruments, 37, 246–248.
Gao, X., Wei, Y., & Huang, W. (2018). Critical aspects of scanning probe microscopy mapping when applied to cement pastes. Advances in Cement Research, 30(7), 293–304.
Gawler, J., Sanders, M. D., Bull, J. W., Du Boulay, G., & Marshall, J. (1974). Computer assisted tomography in orbital disease. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 58(6), 571.
Godara, A., Raabe, D., & Green, S. (2007). The influence of sterilization processes on the micromechanical properties of carbon fiber-reinforced PEEK composites for bone implant applications. Acta Biomaterialia, 3(2), 209.
Herbert, E. G., Oliver, W. C., & Pharr, G. M. (2008). Nanoindentation and the dynamic characterization of viscoelastic solids. Journal of Physics D-Applied Physics, 41, 074021.
Hodge, A. M., & Nieh, T. G. (2004). Evaluating abrasive wear of amorphous alloys using nanoscratch technique. Intermetallics, 12(7–9), 741–748.
Hoover, C. G., & Ulm, F. J. (2015). Experimental chemo-mechanics of early-age fracture properties of cement paste. Cement and Concrete Research, 75, 42–52.
Hu, C., Han, Y., Gao, Y., Zhang, Y., & Li, Z. (2014). Property investigation of calcium–silicate–hydrate (C–S–H) gel in cementitious composites. Materials Characterization, 95, 129–139.
Hu, J., Qian, Z., Liu, Y., & Zhang, M. (2015). High-temperature failure in asphalt mixtures using micro-structural investigation and image analysis. Construction and Building Materials, 84(6), 136–145.
Huang, L., Lu, J., & Xu, K. (2004). Elasto-plastic deformation and fracture mechanism of a diamond-like carbon film deposited on a Ti–6Al–4V substrate in nano-scratch test. Thin Solid Films, 466(1–2), 175–182.
Kang, S. H., Kim, J. J., Kim, D. J., & Chung, Y. S. (2013). Effect of sand grain size and sand-to-cement ratio on the interfacial bond strength of steel fibers embedded in mortars. Construction and Building Materials, 47, 1421–1430.
Khedmati, M., Kim, Y. R., Turner, J. A., Alanazi, H., & Nguyen, C. (2018). An integrated microstructural-nanomechanical-chemical approach to examine material-specific characteristics of cementitious interphase regions. Materials Characterization, 138, 154–164.
Knoll, M. (1935). Static potential and secondary emission of bodies under electron radiation. Z Tech Physik, 16, 467.
Knoll, M., & Theile, R. (1939). Scanning electron microscope for determining the topography of surfaces and thin layers. Z Physik, 113, 260.
Kong, W., Wei, Y., & Wang, S. (2020). Research progress on cement-based materials by X-ray computed tomography. International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology, 13, 366–375.
Kong, W. K., Wei, Y., Wang, Y. Q., & Sha, A. M. (2021). Development of micro and macro fracture properties of cementitious materials exposed to freeze-thaw environment at early ages. Construction and Building Materials, 271(15), 121502.
Kruth, J. P., Bartscher, M., Carmignato, S., Schmitt, R., De Chiffre, L., & Weckenmann, A. (2011). Computed tomography for dimensional metrology. Annals CIRP, 60(2), 821–842.
Lcdley, R. S., Di Chiro, G., Luessenhop, A. J., & Twigg, H. L. (1974). Computerized transaxial X-ray tomography of the human body. Science, 186(4160), 207–212.
Li, W., Kawashima, S., & Xiao, J. (2016). Comparative investigation on nanomechanical properties of hardened cement paste. Materials and Structures, 49(5), 1591–1604.
Li, X., & Bhushan, B. (2002). A review of nanoindentation continuous stiffness measurement technique and its applications. Materials Characterization, 48(1), 11–36.
Liang, S., Wei, Y., & Gao, X. (2017). Strain-rate sensitivity of cement paste by microindentation continuous stiffness measurement: Implication to isotache approach for creep modeling. Cement and Concrete Research, 100, 84–95.
Lide, D. R. (2003). Handbook of chemistry and physics (84th ed.). CRC Press.
Marinoni, N., Voltolini, M., Mancini, L., & Cella, F. (2012). Influence of aggregate mineralogy on alkali-silica reaction studied by X-ray powder diffraction and imaging techniques. Journal of Materials Science, 47(6), 2845–2855.
Mallick, S., Anoop, M. B., & Rao, K. B. (2019). Creep of cement paste containing fly ash-an investigation using microindentation technique. Cement and Concrete Research, 121, 21–36.
Masoero, E., Del Gado, E., Pellenq, R. M., Ulm, F. J., & Yip, S. (2012). Nanostructure and nanomechanics of cement: Polydisperse colloidal packing. Physical Review Letters, 109(15), 155503.
Mondal, P., Shah, S. P., & Marks, L. (2007). A reliable technique to determine the local mechanical properties the nanoscale for cementitious materials. Cement and Concrete Research, 37, 1440–1444.
Nguyen, D. T., Alizadeh, R., Beaudoin, J. J., Pourbeik, P., & Raki, L. (2014). Microindentation creep of monophasic calcium-silicate-hydrates. Cement and Concrete Composites, 48, 118–126.
Nieh, T. G., Schuh, C., Wadsworth, J., et al. (2002). Strain rate-dependent deformation in bulk metallic glasses. Intermetallics, 10(11), 1177–1182.
Oatley, C. W., & Everhart, T. E. (1957). The examination of p-n junctions in the scanning electron microscope. Journal Electronics, 2, 568–570.
Oliver, W. C., & Pharr, G. M. (1992). An improved technique for determining hardness and elastic modulus using load and displacement sensing indentation experiments. Materials Research, 7, 1564–1582.
Olivier, B., Ulm, F. J., & Lemarchand, E. (2003). A multiscale micromechanics-hydration model for the early-age elastic properties of cement-based materials. Cement and Concrete Research, 33(9), 1293–1309.
Paxton, R., Ambrose, J. (1974). The EMI scanner. A brief review of the first 650 patients. British Journal of Radiology, 47(561), 530–565.
Pease, R. F. W., & Nixon, W. C. (1965). High resolution scanning electron microscopy. Journal of Scientific Instruments, 42, 81–85.
Pichler, C., & Lackner, R. (2009). Identification of logarithmic-type creep of calcium-silicate-hydrates by means of nanoindentation. Strain, 45(1), 17–25.
Randall, N. X., Vandamme, M., & Ulm, F. J. (2009). Nanoindentation analysis as a two-dimensional tool for mapping the mechanical properties of complex surfaces. Journal of Materials Research, 24(3), 679–690.
Richardson, I. G. (2004). Tobermorite/jennite- and tobermorite/calcium hydroxide-based models for the structure of C-S-H: Applicability to hardened pastes of tricalcium silicate, beta-dicalcium silicate, Portland cement, and blends of Portland cement with blast-fumace slag, metakaolin, or silica fume. Cement and Concrete Research, 34(9), 1733–1777.
Ritter, H. L., & Drake, L. C. (1945). Pressure Porosimeter and Determination of Complete Macropore-Size Distributions. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Analytical Edition, 17(12), 782–786.
Ritter, H. L., & Erich, L. C. (1948). Pore size distribution in porous materials. Analytical Chemistry, 20(7), 665–670.
Scrivener, K., Snellings, R., & Lothenbach. B. (2016). A practical guide to microstructural analysis of cementitious materials. CRC Press.
Sellevold, E. J. (1974). Mercury porosimetry of hardened cement paste cured or stored at 97 C. Cement and Concrete Research, 4, 399–404.
Smith, K. C. A. (1956). The scanning electron microscope and its fields of application. University of Cambridge, Ph.D. thesis.
Smith, K. C. A., & Oatley, C. W. (1955). The scanning electron microscope and its fields of application. British Journal of Applied Physics, 6, 391–399.
Tabor, D. (1970). The hardness of solids. Review of Physics in Technology, 1(3), 145.
Tian, W., Dang, F. N., & Xie, Y. L. (2015). CT test analysis of meso damage and fracture process of concrete under tensile loading. Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 37(2), 73–78. (In Chinese).
Vandamme, M. (2008). The nanogranular origin of concrete creep: A nanoindentation investigation of microstructure and fundamental properties of calcium-silicate-hydrates (Ph.D. thesis), MIT, 366.
Vandamme, M., & Ulm, F. J. (2009). Nanogranular origin of concrete creep. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(26), 10552–10557.
Vandamme, M., Ulm, F. J., & Fonollosa, P. (2010). Nanogranular packing of C-S–H at substochiometric conditions. Cement and Concrete Research, 40(1), 14–26.
Vandamme, M., Tweedie, C., Constantinides, G., Ulm, F., & Vliet, J. (2012). Quantifying plasticity independent creep compliance and relaxation of viscoelastoplastic materials under contact loading. Journal of Materials Research, 27(1), 302–312.
Vandamme, M., & Ulm, F. J. (2013). Nanoindentation investigation of creep properties of calcium silicate hydrates. Cement and Concrete Research, 52, 38–52.
Velez, K., Maximilien, S., Damidot, D., Fantozzi, G., & Sorrentino, F. (2001). Determination by nanoindentation of elastic modulus and hardness of pure constituents of Portland cement clinker. Cement and Concrete Research, 31(4), 555–561.
von Ardenne, M. (1938a). Das Elektronen-Rastermikroskop. Praktische Ausfuhrung Zeitschrift Technology Physics, 19, 407–416.
von Ardenne, M. (1938b). Das Elektronen-Rastermikroskop. Theoretische Grundlagen. Zeitschrift Physics, 109, 553–572.
Washburn, E. W. (1921a). Note on a method of determining the distribution of pore sizes in a porous material. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 7(4), 115–116.
Washburn, E. W. (1921b). The dynamics of capillary flow. Physical Review, 17(3), 273–283.
Wei, Y., Liang, S. M., & Gao, X. (2017a). Phase quantification in cementitious materials by dynamic modulus mapping. Materials Characterization, 127, 348–356.
Wei, Y., Liang, S. M., & Gao, X. (2017b). Indentation creep of cementitious materials: Experimental investigation from nano to micro length scales. Construction and Building Materials, 143, 222–233.
Wei, Y., Gao, X., & Liang, S. (2018). A combined SPM/NI/EDS method to quantify properties of inner and outer C-S-H in OPC and slag-blended cement pastes. Cement and Concrete Composites, 85, 56–66.
Wei, Y., Wu, Z., Yao, X., & Gao, X. (2019). Quantifying effect of later curing on pores of paste subject to early-age freeze-thaw cycles by different techniques. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 31(8), 04019153.
Wei, Y., Kong, W. K., Wang, Y. Q., & Sha, A. M. (2021). Multifunctional application of nanoscratch technique to characterize cementitious materials. Cement and Concrete Research, 140, 106318.
Wells, O. C. (1957). The construction of a scanning electron microscope and its application to the study of fibres. University of Cambridge, Ph.D. thesis.
Wilkinson, T. M., Zargari, S., Prasad, M., & Packard, C. E. (2015). Optimizing nano-dynamic mechanical analysis for high-resolution, elastic modulus mapping in organic-rich shales. Journal of Materials Science, 50(3), 1041–1049.
Willis, K. L., Abell, A. B., & Lange, D. A. (1998). Image-based characterization of cement pore structure using wood’s metal intrusion. Cement and Concrete Research, 28(12), 1695–1705.
Winslow, D., Diamond, S. (1969). A mercury porosimetry study of the evolution of porosity in Portland cement. Technical publication.
Xu, J., Corr, D. J., & Shah, S. P. (2015). Nanomechanical properties of CSH gel/cement grain interface by using nanoindentation and modulus mapping. Journal of Zhejiang University-Science A, 16(1), 38–46.
Xu, J., Corr, D. J., & Shah, S. P. (2017). Nanoscratch study of the modification effects of nanoSiO2 on C-S-H gel/cement grain interfaces. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 29(9), 04017093.
Yang, Y., Zhang, Y., She, W., Wu, Z., Liu, Z., & Ding, Y. (2018). Nondestructive monitoring the deterioration process of cement paste exposed to sodium sulfate solution by X-ray computed tomography. Construction and Building Materials, 186(20), 182–190.
Youn, S. W., & Kang, C. G. (2006). Effect of nanoscratch conditions on both deformation behavior and wet-etching characteristics of silicon (100) surface. Wear, 261(3–15), 328.
Zhang Q. (2014). Creep properties of cementitious materials: effect of water and microstructure: An approach by microindentation. Université Paris-Est.
Zhang, Q., Le Roy, R., Vandamme, M., & Zuber, B. (2014). Long-term creep properties of cementitious materials: Comparing microindentation testing with macroscopic uniaxial compressive testing. Cement and Concrete Research, 58, 89–98.
Zhang, M. (2017). Pore-scale modelling of relative permeability of cementitious materials using X-ray computed microtomography images. Cement Concrete Res., 95, 18–29.
Zhao, H., & Darwin, D. (1992). Quantitative backscattered electron analysis of cement paste. Cement and Concrete Research, 22(4), 695–706.
Zhao, S., Van Dam, E., Lange, D., & Sun, W. (2016). Abrasion resistance and nanoscratch behavior of an ultra-high performance concrete. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 29(2), 04016212.
Zhou, S. Z., Dang, F. N., Chen, H. Q., & Liu, Y. (2009). Fracturing analysis of concrete meso structure under the uniaxial compression test with CT scan. The Ocean Engineering, 27(2), 89–95. (In Chinese).
Zworykin, V. A., Hillier, J., & Snyder, R. L. (1942). A scanning electron microscope. ASTM Bull, 117, 15–23.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Wei, Y., Liang, S., Kong, W. (2023). Experimental Techniques. In: Mechanical Properties of Cementitious Materials at Microscale. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6883-9_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6883-9_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-19-6882-2
Online ISBN: 978-981-19-6883-9
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)