Skip to main content
Book cover

The Palgrave Handbook of Globalization with Chinese Characteristics pp 67–90Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

The BRI in Xi’s China “Grand Strategy”: An Instrument to Restore Chinese Centrality in a New Era

  • 270 Accesses

Abstract

The goal and contribution of this chapter is to understand and analyse China’s Grand Strategy in which the BRI fits. Filling a crucial gap in the existing literature related to the BRI, we attempt to answer the following central questions: of which Chinese grand strategy is the BRI part of? Has this grand strategy changed under the leadership of Xi Jinping, the BRI mentor? And how does the BRI contribute to Xi’s China grand strategy? Responding to these questions, we highlight three main arguments. First, China’s current grand strategy is the result both of its “historical continuity” and astounding resurgence and of the overlapping interests, ambitions, and worldview of China as a State and of the dominant CPC, with emphasis on the path traced by leaders such as Deng Xiaoping and Xi Jinping. Second, the strengthening of its “comprehensive national power,” combined with Xi Jinping’s leadership style, has made China more ambitious, confident, and assertive. Third, the BRI is part of a broader set of Xi’s China policies and initiatives, and in addition to economic objectives, it also has associated geopolitical and geostrategic goals in an attempt to place China at the centre of the global stage.

Keywords

  • China
  • Xi Jinping
  • Belt and Road Initiative
  • Grand strategy
  • Geopolitics
  • Indo/Asia–Pacific

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • DOI: 10.1007/978-981-19-6700-9_5
  • Chapter length: 24 pages
  • Instant PDF download
  • Readable on all devices
  • Own it forever
  • Exclusive offer for individuals only
  • Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • ISBN: 978-981-19-6700-9
  • Instant PDF download
  • Readable on all devices
  • Own it forever
  • Exclusive offer for individuals only
  • Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
Learn about institutional subscriptions

Bibliographic References

  • Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB). (2021). Website. Retrieved on 18 October 2021, from https://www.aiib.org/en/index.html

  • Acker, K., & Brautigam, D. (2021). Twenty years of data on China’s Africa lending (China-Africa Research Initiative Policy Brief nº 4). Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS).

    Google Scholar 

  • Acker, K., Brautigam, D., & Yufan, H. (2020). Debt relief with Chinese characteristics (China-Africa Research Initiative Policy Brief nº 46). Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS).

    Google Scholar 

  • Balzacq, T., & Krebs, R. R. (2021). The Oxford handbook of grand strategy. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beckley, M., & Brands, H. (2021, October 1). The end of China’s rise. Beijing is running out of time to remake the world. Foreign Affairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beeson, M. (Ed.). (2020). Rivalry and cooperation in the Asia-Pacific: The dynamics of a region in transition (2 Vols.). WSPC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation. (2017, May 17). Joint Communique of the Leaders Roundtable of the Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation. Beijing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beltandroadforum.Org, Retrieved on 18 October 2021, from http://www.beltandroadforum.org/english/index.html

  • Belt and Road Portal—Guidance under the Office of the Leading Group for Promoting the Belt and Road Initiative, Hosted by the State Information Center. Retrieved on 18 October 2021, from https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/index.htm

  • Biden, J. R., Jr. (2021a, February 4). Remarks by President Biden on America’s place in the world. U.S. Department of State Headquarters, Harry S. Truman Building, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biden, J. R., Jr. (2021b, March 25). Remarks by President Biden in press conference. Retrieved on 03 November 2021, from https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2021/03/25/remarks-by-president-biden-in-press-conference/

  • Biscop, S. (2021). Grand strategy in 10 words: A guide to great power politics in the 21st century. Bristol University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blachette, J. (2021, July/August). Xi’s gamble. The race to consolidate power and stave off disaster. Foreign Affairs,100(4), 10–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brands, H. (2014). What good is grand strategy? Power and purpose in American statecraft from Harry S. Truman to George W. Bush. Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chih-Yu, S., et al. (2019). China and international theory. The balance of relationships. Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • China-Africa Business Council. (2021, August). Market power and role of the private sector. Chinese investment in Africa. China-Africa Business Council Report.

    Google Scholar 

  • China Daily. (2016). Chairman Xi’s 2016 new year’s address (Bilingual Full Text). Retrieved on 18 October 2021, from https://chinadaily.com.cn/interface/yidian/1139302/2016-01-%2004/cd_22925566.html

  • CPC—Communist Party of China. (2017). Constitution of the Communist Party of China. Revised and adopted at the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China on October 24, 2017. Retrieved on 14 November 2021, from http://www.xinhuanet.com//english/download/Constitution_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China.pdf

  • CPC—Communist Party of China, Central Committee. (2013). Decision on some major issues concerning comprehensively deepening the reform. Adopted at the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on November 12, 2013. China.org Retrieved on 3 November 2021, from http://www.china.org.cn/china/third_plenary_session/2014-01/16/content_31212602.htm

  • da Silva, J. T. (2021). XI Jinping—A Ascensão do Novo Timoneiro da China. Sílabos e Desafios.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doshi, R. (2021). The long game: China’s grand strategy to displace American order. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duarte, P. A. B., & Ferreira-Pereira, L. (2021). The soft power of China and the European Union in the context of the Belt and Road Initiative and global strategy. Journal of Contemporary European Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2021.1916740.

  • Erçetin, Ş. Ş., & Açikalin, Ş. N. (Eds.). (2020). Chaos, complexity and leadership 2018. Explorations of chaotic and complexity theory. Springer International Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • FOCAC—Forum on China-Africa Cooperation. (2018, September 4). Beijing Declaration— Toward an even stronger China-Africa community with a shared future. Beijing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freedman, L. (2013). Strategy: A history. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fu, Y. (2016, February 13). Speech by the Chairwoman of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the Chinese National People’s Congress at the 52nd Munich Security Conference.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaddis, J. L. (2019). On grand strategy. Penguin Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, A. O. (Coord.). (2020). China. The Belt and Road Initiative: A global transformation. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaspar, C. (2019). O Regresso da Anarquia. Os Estados Unidos, a China, a Rússia e a Ordem Internacional [The return of anarchy. The United States, China, Russia and the international order]. Alêtheia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grydehoj, A., & Ping, S. (2021). China and the pursuit of harmony in world politics: Understanding Chinese international relations theory. Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ho, B. T. E. (2019). Chinese thinking about international relations: From theory to practice. Asia Policy, 14(3), 2–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hun, J. K. (2016). Will IR theory with Chinese characteristics be a powerful alternative? The Chinese Journal of International Politics, 9(1), 59–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koda, Y. (2021, September 21). China, Wolf Warrior diplomacy and Taiwan. The Diplomat. Retrieved on 13 November 2021, from https://thediplomat.com/2021/09/china-wolf-warrior-diplomacy-and-taiwan/

  • Kovrig, M. (2018, October 24). China expands its peace and security footprint in Africa. International Crisis Group Commentary. Retrieved on 15 October 2021, from https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/north-east-asia/china/china-expands-its-peace-and-security-footprint-africa

  • Layton, P. (2018). Grand strategy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Layton, P. (2020, August 17). Defining grand strategy. The Strategy Bridge.Org. Retrieved on 4 November 2021, from https://thestrategybridge.org/the-bridge/2020/8/17/defining-grand-strategy

  • Leandro, F. J., & Duarte, P. A. B. (Eds.). (2020). The Belt and Road Initiative: An old archetype of a new development model. Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lissner, R. F. (2018). What is grand strategy? Sweeping a conceptual minefield. TNSR-Texas National Security Review, 2(1), 52–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lukin, A. (2018). China and Russia. A new rapprochement. Polity.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maçães, B. (2018). Belt and Road: A Chinese world order. Hurst.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markey, D. (2020). China’s western horizon: Beijing and the new geopolitics of Eurasia. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, P. (2021). China’s civilian army: The making of Wolf Warrior diplomacy. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Medcalf, R. (2020). Indo-Pacific empire. China, America and the contest for the World’s pivotal region. Manchester University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menon, S. (2016, January 2). What China’s rise means for the world. The Wire. Retrieved on 12 November 2021, from https://thewire.in/external-affairs/what-chinas-rise-means-for-the-world

  • Milevski, L. (2016). The evolution of modern grand strategic thought. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munyi, E. N. (2020). Challenging Pax Americana: The commercial imperative in Chinese arms exports to Africa—A case study of Uganda and Kenya (China-Africa Research Initiative Policy Brief nº 41). Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nantulya, P. (2021, September 3). The forum on China-Africa cooperation at 21: Where to next? AfricanCenter.org Spotlight. African Center for Strategic Studies. Retrieved on 10 November 2021, from https://africacenter.org/spotlight/focac-forum-china-africa-cooperation-21-where-to-next/

  • NDRC—PRChina’s National Development and Reform Commission. (2015, March 28). Vision and actions on jointly building Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road. Retrieved on 10 November 2021, from http://en.ndrc.gov.cn/newsrelease/201503/

  • Nexon, D. (2021, February 15). Against great power competition. The U.S. should not confuse means for ends. Foreign Affairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olander, E. (2020, July 6). China’s new priorities in Africa. The China Africa Project. Retrieved on 4 November 2021, from https://chinaafricaproject.com/analysis/chinas-new-priorities-in-africa/

  • PCA— Permanent Court of Arbitration. (2016). PCA Case No. 2013–19 in the matter of the South China Sea Arbitration—Award, 12 July 2016. Retrieved on 12 November 2021, from https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/2086

  • Posen, B. R. (2014). Restraint: A new foundation for U.S. grand strategy. Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • PRChina. (2015, May). China’s military strategy. The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • PRChina. (2016, July). China adheres to the position of settling through negotiation the relevant disputes between China and the Philippines in the South China Sea. The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • PRChina. (2017, January). China’s policies on Asia-Pacific security cooperation. The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • PRChina. (2019a, September). China and the world in the new era. The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • PRChina. (2019b, July). China’s national defense in the new era. The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • PRChina (2021a, January). China’s international development cooperation in the new era. The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • PRChina. (2021b, September). China’s epic journey from poverty to prosperity. The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • PRChina—Constitution of the People’s Republic of China. (1982). Revised with all Amendments adopted in 1988, 1993, 1999, 2004 and 2018. Retrieved on 14 November 2021, from https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/lawsregulations/201911/20/content_WS5ed8856ec6d0b3f0e9499913.html

  • Reuters Agency. (2021, March 26). Biden says he suggested to UK’s Johnson a plan to rival China’s Belt and Road. Retrieved on 19 November 2021, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-britain-biden-china/biden-says-he-suggested-to-uks-johnson-a-plan-to-rival-chinas-belt-and-road-idUSKBN2BI32M

  • Rolland, N. (2019, February–March). A China–Russia condominium over Eurasia. Survival: Global Politics and Strategy, 61, 7–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shambaugh, D. (Ed.). (2020). China and the world. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shambaugh, D. (2021). China’s leaders: From Mao to now. Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silove, N. (2018). Beyond the buzzword: The three meanings of ‘grand strategy’. Security Studies, 27(1), 27–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • South China Morning Post. (2021, January 12). Xi Jinping says ‘time and momentum on China’s side’ as he sets out Communist Party vision. SCMP. Retrieved on 13 April 2021, from https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3117314/xi-jinping-says-time-and-momentum-chinas-side-he-sets-out

  • Stent, A. (2020, February). Russia and China: Axis of revisionists? Brookings Institution.

    Google Scholar 

  • Summers, T. (2016). China’s ‘New Silk Roads’: Sub-national regions and networks of global political economy. Third World Quarterly, 37(9), 1628–1643.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutter, R. (2019, March 21). An emerging China-Russia axis? Implications for the United States in an era of strategic competition. Testimony before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutter, R. (2020), Chinese foreign relations: Power and policy of an emerging global force (5th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tekdal, V. (2018). China’s Belt and Road Initiative: At the crossroads of challenges and ambitions. The Pacific Review, 31(3), 373–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • The White House. (2021, March). U.S. interim national security strategy guidance.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomé, L. (2004). The new world’s geopolitical outline (English and Portuguese ed.). Quid Juris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomé, L. (2008). Security and geopolitics in East Asia today: One region, two faces. In L. Tomé (Ed.), East Asia today (pp. 27–81). Prefácio Editora.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomé, L. (2016). Complex systems theories and eclectic approach in analysing and theorising the contemporary international security complex. In Ş. Ş. Erçetin & H. Bagci (Eds.), Handbook of research on chaos and complexity theory in the social sciences (pp. 19–32). IGI Global.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomé, L. (2017). Poder Mundial e Segurança Internacional ao Olhar o Mundo Futuro [World power and international security as it looks to the future world]. In A. P. Mateus et al., Olhar o Mundo [Looking at the world] (pp. 175–182). Marcador.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomé, L. (2018). Geopolítica da Rússia de Putin: não é a União Soviética, mas gostava de ser… [Putin’s Russia geopolitics: It’s not the Soviet Union, but it would like to be…]. RI-Relações Internacionais (60), 69–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomé, L. (2019). Região Indo-Pacífico: o factor China e motivações geopolíticas [Indo-Pacific region: The China factor and geopolitical motivations]. Nação e Defesa nº 151-Geopolítica Aplicada, 66–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomé, L. (2021a, March). China e Ásia-Pacífico na Politica da Administração Biden: operacionalizando um ‘sistema internacional estável e aberto’ e um ‘Indo-Pacífico livre e aberto’ [China and Asia-Pacific in Biden Administration Policy: operationalizing a ‘stable and open international system’ and a ‘free and open Indo-Pacific’]. RI-Relações Internacionais (69), 35–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomé, L. (2021b). The impacts of the pandemic crisis on international politics. In S. Ş. Erçetin, N. Potas, & S. N. Açikalin (Eds.), COVID-19 beyond: Effects of different fields. Springer/World Scientific Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomé, L. (2021c). Construction and deconstruction of the liberal international order. Janus.net, e-Journal of International Relations—Special Issue on Liberalism.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomé, L. (2021d). Mares da China: disputas e dilemas à luz da ressurgência chinesa [China’s seas: Disputes and dilemmas in light of China’s resurgence]. In Academia da Marinha—Memórias 2020. Edições da Academia da Marinha.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomé, L., & Açikalin, S. N. (2019). Chapter 1. Complexity theory as a new lens in international relations: System and change. In S. Ş. Erçetin & N. Potas (Eds.), Chaos, complexity and leadership. Explorations of chaos and complexity theory (pp. 1–15). IGI Global/Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • USDoD—United States Department of Defense. (2021). Military and security developments involving the People’s Republic of China 2021. Annual report to Congress. Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Voo, J. P., & Xinpeng, X. (2020). Impact of the Belt and Road Initiative on China’s soft power: Preliminary evidence. Asia-Pacific Journal of Accounting & Economics, 27(1), 120–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weifeng, Z., & Esteban, M. (2018). Beyond balancing: China’s approach towards the Belt and Road Initiative. Journal of Contemporary China, 27(112), 487–501.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xi Jinping. (2012, November 17). Study, disseminate and implement the guiding principles of the 18th CPC National Congress. Speech at the first group study session of the Political Bureau of the 18th CPC Central Committee which Xi presided over.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xi Jinping. (2014, May 21), New Asian security concept for new progress in security cooperation. Remarks at the Fourth Summit of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China. Shanghai Expo Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xi Jinping. (2017a, October 18). Secure a decisive victory in building a moderately prosperous society in all respects and strive for the great success of socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era. Speech delivered at the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xi Jinping. (2017b, May 14). Work together to Build the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Opening Ceremony of the Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xi Jinping. (2019). On building a human community with a shared future. Central Compilation & Translation Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xi Jinping. (2021a, July 1). Speech at a ceremony marking the centenary of the Communist Party of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xi Jinping. (2021b, April 20). Pulling together through adversity and toward a shared future for all. Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xi Jinping. (2021c, September 21). Bolstering confidence and jointly overcoming difficulties to build a better world. Statement by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the General Debate of the 76th Session of the United Nations General Assembly.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xinhua News Agency. (2014, November 24). Xi eyes more enabling international environment for China’s peaceful development. Retrieved on 12 November 2021, from http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2014-11/30/c_133822694_4.htm

  • Yong, W. (2016). Offensive for defensive: The belt and road initiative and China’s new grand strategy. The Pacific Review, 29(3), 455–463.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Zhinqun, Z. (2020, May 15). Interpreting China’s ‘Wolf-Warrior diplomacy’. The Diplomat. Retrieved on 13 November 2021, from https://thediplomat.com/2020/05/interpreting-chinas-wolf-warrior-diplomacy/

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Autónoma University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

    Luis Tomé

  2. International Relations Department and OBSERVARE, Portuguese Institute of International Relations (IPRI-NOVA), Lisbon, Portugal

    Luis Tomé

Authors
  1. Luis Tomé
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Universidade Lusófona do Porto, Porto, Portugal

    Paulo Afonso B. Duarte

  2. University of Macau, Macau SAR, China

    Francisco José B. S. Leandro

  3. Asian Development Bank, Mandaluyong, Philippines

    Enrique Martínez Galán

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Tomé, L. (2023). The BRI in Xi’s China “Grand Strategy”: An Instrument to Restore Chinese Centrality in a New Era. In: Duarte, P.A.B., Leandro, F.J.B.S., Galán, E.M. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Globalization with Chinese Characteristics. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6700-9_5

Download citation