Serve the Country Through Engineering

Abstract

Founded in 1896 as Imperial Nanyang University, Jiaotong University owned its origin to Sheng Xuanhai, then famous industrialist and educator, who set the school’s goal of fostering economic, political and legal talents. Qian Xuesen witnessed the University’s golden period in the developmental history, then well-acclaimed as ‘MIT in the East’ and later developed into a comprehensive university of science and engineering. Having received sufficient funding and well-equipped for research and teaching, Jiaotong University was renowned as having both “masterminds” and “high buildings.”

1 At Shanghai Jiaotong University

Founded in 1896 as Imperial Nanyang University, Jiaotong University owned its origin to Sheng Xuanhai, then famous industrialist and educator, who set the school’s goal of fostering economic, political and legal talents. Qian Xuesen witnessed the University’s golden period in the developmental history, then well-acclaimed as ‘MIT in the East’ and later developed into a comprehensive university of science and engineering. Having received sufficient funding and well-equipped for research and teaching, Jiaotong University was renowned as having both “masterminds” and “high buildings.”

Unlike the current national college entrance examination system, the universities in Republic of China stipulated their own enrollment regulations, organized entrance exams and recruited students on their own. The universities usually staggered the examination time so that students could apply for several universities. Many students thus were able to apply for several universities at the same time; however, Qian Xuesen was quite determinate to have Jiaotong University his sole choice (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1

Group photo at Qian Xuesen’s home in Fangguyuan, Hangzhou after he was admitted to Jiaotong University in 1929 (from right: maid, grandmother, his mother Zhang Lanjuan, his father Qian Junfu and Qian Xuesen)

Jiaotong University had its recruiting regulations published in Shen Bao, Ta Kung Pao, and Morning News, then influential newspaper in the country. The scheduled examinations were on July 23, 24 and 25th, 1929 and the venue was at Jiaotong University. Two subjects were tested each day, with a total of six subjects: Chinese, English, physics, chemistry, advanced algebra and analytical geometry.

On August 4, 1929, the Shanghai newspaper Shen Bao published a list of students who had passed the entrance exam of Jiaotong University on the front page. Qian Xuesen’s score placed him the third in the nation in mechanical engineering with a total score of 396 points: 51 in Chinese, 80 in English, 50 in physics, 85 in chemistry, 60 in advanced algebra and 70 in analytic geometry respectively.

Being admitted to Jiaotong University was not easy, considering that the admission ratio was about one out of five. The admission was fair as it solely based on the scores gained through written examination.

Why wouldn’t Qian Xuesen choose Tsinghua University located in Beijing as he went to middle school in Beijing? A reasonable inference could be that the graduates from Jiaotong University were able to find a descent and well-paid job. The railway passenger and freight transportation and other related industries under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Transportation could provide a so-called “iron rice bowl”. It was true with some other industries such as postal service and telecommunications, shipping, infrastructure, banking and management, all of which were high-paid industries. It was not uncommon for freshmen and sophomores in other universities opting for dropping out and applying for Jiaotong University (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2

Qian Xuesen’s registration form at Jiaotong University

As for Qian Xuesen, two private reasons could well explain his decision. One was his strong determination to serve the country with his expertise in mechanical engineering. The other could be quite personal. His father Qian Junfu had worked in the national government’s Ministry of Education and was transferred to Nanjing in 1927, and later to Hangzhou. Qian Junfu decided to leave his wife, Zhang Lanjuan to stay in Beijing for another two years to take good care of their son. The whole family finally moved back to Hangzhou upon Qian Xuesen’s admission to Jiaotong University in 1929.

Engineering students struggling for high scores

September 9, 1929 was the day when the new students of Jiaotong University registered for admission and 145 freshmen were enrolled in the College of Engineering, including Qian Xueshan. Among them, 55 were directly enrolled through preparatory program and 90 were admitted through entrance examinations. The new students in the three engineering colleges, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Civil Engineering, were organized into three types of classes, and Qian Xuesen was allocated in class A.

Jiaotong University was known for training engineering students, and it required that students’ basic knowledge must be consolidated. Therefore, all engineering students in the first and second year must take basic courses in mathematics, science and chemistry and so forth. It was not until the third year that professional courses were taught separately for the mechanical, electrical and civil engineering majors. Jiaotong University was also featured with the large load of courses, homework assignments, exams and term papers, as shown in Qian Xuesen’s school schedule (Table 1). In order to distinguish the ranking of student performance, the test scores were calculated to two decimal places, as shown in the saying “one point on the hero.” There were two groups of students, graduates from High School Affiliated to Beijing Normal University and from Yangzhou Middle School, who often competed secretly in exam results for the reputation of their alma mater.

Table 1 Qian Xuesen’s school schedule at Jiaotong University

At the start, Qian Xuesen felt not adapted to the college as students at Jiaotong University were all top students and they specially valued scores. As a freshman, Qian Xuesen adopted the study method in high school, and had 83.34 and 83.30 overall average scores in two semesters. He ranked first in Class A, but not the best in the entire grade. Qian Xuesen soon realized the differences between college and high school and he had to change his study method. He then set a secret goal: to achieve 90 points in the exams. He recalled:

In my first year at Jiaotong University, I felt that I didn't learn much new, because I had learned all courses at high school. As test scores were emphasized at Jiaotong University, a student with a score of 80 points was considered ordinary. One had to have a score of 90 points to be a good student and one had to memorize the textbooks to get 90 points! I remembered very clearly that we had an analytical chemistry lesson, which was actually a qualitative analysis class. To memorize was the only way out. In a few days before the exam, I memorized everything from the first page to the last page, including the footnotes in order to get a good score (Figs. 3 and 4).

Fig. 3

A 1930’s group photo of the graduates from Middle School affiliated to Beijing Normal University (Qian Xuesen was the third from the left in the back row)

Fig. 4

A group photo: Qian Xuesen and his classmates upon graduation from Jiaotong University

This rote memorization method soon paid off, and Qian Xuesen gradually adapted to the study in college. His grades “rocketed”, and achieved the goal of over 90 points in every semester from his junior year. According to the school’s regulations, the students with semester grades of 90 could enjoy an award in the form of tuition waiver, so he enjoyed the tuition waiver for four semesters in his junior and senior years, which was equivalent to a full scholarship.

In July 1934, Qian Xuesen graduated with a high grade point average of 89.10, ranking first in the College of Mechanical Engineering. President Li Zhaohuan presented him with a certificate of appreciation for his “dedication to research and expertise.” Upon graduation, he also received an honor that many students could only dream of: membership in the Phi Tau Phi Scholastic Honor Society. The Phi Tau Phi Honor Society was founded in 1921 as a national inspirational organization by J.H. Ehlers, an American professor at Beiyang University. Phi Tau Phi is the transliteration of the Greek letters Philosophia (philosophy), techologia (technology) and physiologia (natural philosophy). Ehlers was the director general of the Society, and the founding members were Fan Lianyuan, Guo Bingwen, Hu Shi, Zhang Boling, Stuart Leiden, Bao Wen and Bu Fangji. The purpose of the Society was “to select the best and the brightest, to reward scholarship, to honor virtue and respect, to encourage each other, and to contribute to the progress of society.”

After its establishment, the Phi Tau Phi Scholastic Honor Society established branches in major universities in China to select members according to strict standards. Generally, well-known and outstanding professors in colleges and universities served as members, and excellent graduates could also be selected upon the agreement of all Society members. Besides Qian Xuesen, other graduates of Jiaotong University in 1934 such as Zhang Guangdou, An Dingyi, Ni Wenjie, Zhuang Huai, Xu Shengsheng, Bao chengzuo, Yuan Xiang and so forth, were elected as members of the Phi Tau Phi Scholastic Honor Society by unanimous vote of all members.

At 3 p.m., on June 30, 1934, the 34th graduation ceremony of Jiaotong University was held in Wenzhi Hall. Prior to the ceremony, President Li Zhaohuan hosted a banquet at home for the eight newly elected members of the Phi Tau Phi Scholastic Honor Society and they went to the graduation ceremony together after the banquet. Qian Xuesen always kept his membership certificate of the Phi Tau Phi Scholastic Honor Society no matter he was at home or abroad (Figs. 5, 6 and 7).

Fig. 5

Qian Xuesen’s Diploma of Jiaotong University

Fig. 6

Qian Xuesen’s Bachelor's Degree Certificate

Fig. 7

Qian Xuesen’s Membership Certificate of the Phi Tau Phi Scholastic Honor Society

Two most memorable teachers

When Qian Xuesen recalled his university life in his later years, he often mentioned two teachers, Chen Shiying, a professor of engineering thermodynamics and Zhong Zhaolin, a professor of electrical engineering. Why were these two teachers so memorable to him among more than 30 teachers in the University? The answers might be found in their academic experiences and teaching methods.

Chen Shiying was born in 1890, and was a famous educator in thermal engineering in China. He graduated from Yantai Naval School in 1906 and went to MIT in 1913. After returning to China in 1916, he had served as professor, department director and acting dean of Jiaotong University. He had served as vice chairman of the council of Jiaotong University, vice president and president of Shanghai branch of Chinese Society of Mechanical Engineering since 1949. Having worked for 67 years at Jiaotong University and died in 1983, Chen Shiying was affectionately known as “Chen laofuzi” (a highly revered teacher).

The main courses taught by Chen Shiying were mechanics, hydraulics and thermal engineering. Chen was a serious, rigorous and meticulous teacher. Qian Xuesen recalled professor Chen in his later years with gratitude,

Among the basic professional courses, engineering thermodynamics taught by Mr. Chen impressed me most. His way of teaching was serious and combined with practice. It was an insightful course for us future engineers. I did have great respect for Mr. Chen.

In October 1955, Qian Xuesen was invited to his alma mater to give lectures and hold symposium while traveling his way back to China from the United States via Shanghai. Chen Shiying presided over the symposium. After the event, Qian Xuesen visited the campus and the classrooms where he had studied and the dormitories where he had lived. In 1980, Qian Xuesen made a special visit to Chen Shiying’s home in Shanghai. A few years later, in his manuscript on the seventeen teachers who had influenced his life, Qian Xuesen included Chen Shying and Zhong Zhaolin in the list, for the specified reason of combining “theory and practice.”

Born in 1901 in Deqing, Zhejiang Province, Zhong Zhaolin was a famous expert in electrical engineering. He graduated from Nanyang University in 1923 (the predecessor of Jiaotong University) and then went to Cornell University to pursue a master’s degree. In 1927, he returned to China and taught in his Alma Mater. He had served as the director of the electrical engineering department and director of the electrical equipment manufacturing department at Jiaotong University, and professor of Xi’an Jiaotong University, the first president of Shanxi Electrical Engineering Society as well. In the 1930s, Zhong Zhaolin had successively developed China’s first alternator and motor.

Jiaotong University always attached great importance to experimental and hands-on training, and was known for carrying out electrical experiments. There was an electrical laboratory in the engineering hall at Jiaotong University which was well-equipped with all kinds of electrical experiments. The laboratory provided a platform for the students to cultivate hands-on ability. Mr. Zhong Zhaolin always guided students to do experiments by himself.

Zhong Zhaolin not only imparted knowledge to students, but also taught them how to behave as a man and deal with the dialectical relationship between doing and being. In April 1990, Zhong Zhaolin died in Shanghai Huadong Hospital. When the sad news came, Qian Xuesen was disheartened. He laid a wreath at the memorial service to express his grief. On the centenary of Zhong Zhaolin’s birth, the 90-year-old Qian Xuesen, wrote a letter to his alma mater: “I was a student of Jiaotong University. I graduated in 1934 and left school that summer. Zhong Zhaolin was my dear teacher and I was a student of Professor Zhong.”

The systematic engineering education at Jiaotong University laid the professional foundation for Qian Xuesen to become an engineer. But Qian Xuesen didn’t seem to be satisfied with this. The combination of “theory and practice” adopted by the two university teachers enlightened him a lot. For this reason, Qian mentioned in many occasions,

I was very grateful to two teachers at Jiaotong University, who combined rigorous scientific theories with engineering practice. One was Chen Shiying, professor of engineering thermodynamics, and the other was Zhong Zhaolin, professor of electrical engineering.

In his letter to Qian Xuemin on February 7, 1994, Qian Xuesen explained his gratefulness, “When I entered Jiaotong University to study mechanical engineering (railway engineering) in the early 1930s, most courses were on engineering. However, Professor Zhong Zhaolin, who taught electrical engineering, and Professor Chen Shijing, who taught thermodynamics, attached great importance to theoretical foundation.” In the development of Qian Xuesen’s scientific thoughts, the idea of technical science is a major theoretical achievement, laying down the basis of his later creation of engineering cybernetics, system engineering, modern science and technology system.

The core of technical science thought was the combination of scientific theory and engineering practice, and could be understood as the unity of “a scientist” and “an engineer.” When Qian Xuesen was invited to give lectures at Jiaotong University in 1947, he systematically expounded the theoretical connotation, research methods and research objects of technical science for the first time. From this point of view, the two teachers played the enlightenment role for Qian’s transition from an engineer to a scientist, and Jiaotong University was the starting point of his science career.

2 Artistic Cultivation of an Engineer Student

During the Republic of China, art courses were emphasized in primary and secondary schools. Qian Xuesen benefited a lot from this kind of aesthetic education. At Jiaotong University, more than a diligent student, he also revealed his outstanding talent in arts such as music, design and photography, changing the stereotypical unsmiling image of an engineering student.

A professional euphonium player

Qian Xuesen’s interest in music started from his musical experiences in contact with his cousin Li Yuanqing. Li had studied in Hangzhou National Academy of Arts and he often took Qian Xuesen to Hangzhou Youth Association. When Qian Xuesen recovered from typhus and returned to campus, he was completely fascinated by music. He began to read Feng Zikai's book entitled Listening to Music and Zhang Ruogu's Going to the Concert, and he also went to the library to read books such as The One Hundred and One Best Songs, Literary Digest and so on (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8

Group photo of the orchestra of Jiaotong University (Qian Xuesen was the first one on the left in the front row)

Qian Xuesen frequented to the orchestra to improve his musical skills. Luo Peilin, a mechanical engineering major whom Qian befriended during his last two years at Jiaotong University, recalled:

At that time, both of us were music lovers. He took part in the brass band and practiced euphonium in his room every afternoon for half an hour. He bought an album of Aleksandr Glazunov’s concert waltzes from a music shop on Nanjing Road with his prize money from the Phi Tau Phi Honor Society. I frequented to the junk shops in Beijing Road to buy old recordings of Enrico Caruso, Ernestine Schumann-Heink, violinist Fritz Kreisler, pianist Ignace Paderewski and conductor Leopold Stokowski, and others. Xuesen often dropped by to enjoy the recordings with me and sometimes he brought with records of his own.

Qian Xuesen actively participated in other musical groups in the University. His name appeared in the list of members of the marching band, the list of members of the orchestra of the student union, the list of members of the Choir Club and Members of Harmonica Club at Jiaotong University in 1933.

A designer with the idea of “technical aesthetics”

Qian Xuesen was a serious and modest scholar. His test paper on the course of hydraulics with a score of 96 points at Jiaotong University could well illustrate this, The paper was neatly composed, showing his proficiency in answering the questions and the six pages of answer sheets were like a piece of art works, giving full expression to the characteristics of “technical aesthetics”, which was put forward by Qian Xuesen in his later years.

Qian Xuesen was the secretary of the fine art department of 1934’s grade journal committee. He was responsible for designing the grade emblem of the second and third grade commemorative journals of Jiaotong University and the cover page of the alumni address book (Fig. 9). A review of Qian Xuesen’s early scientific manuscripts displayed his thought of “technical aesthetics” running through his entire science career. In an interview with Wen Hui Bao Newspaper on March 20, 1980, Qian Xuesen encouraged people engaged in science and technology to develop an interest in literature and art. He said earnestly: “Young people should not be restrained and you should firmly believe that the world could be known and be remolded.” Then, what could they do in order to be free from restraint and be ambitious? He further pointed out: “Technical aesthetics could have an inestimable influence on the training of broad thinking.” As such, in his later years, he proposed and advocated “technical aesthetics” after analyzing the development history of technology and art from the perspective of historical materialism.

Fig. 9

The cover of the 1934 Jiaotong University Students’ graduation album designed by Qian Xuesen

A professional and avid photography enthusiast

Qian Xuesen’s interest in photography was influenced by his cousin Zhang Jingqiu, a famous photographer in 1920s and 1930s in Shanghai. Zhang had published many fine photographic works in magazines such as Red rose, Game world and so on.

When Qian Xuesen was studying at Jiaotong University, he often hung out with Zhang Jingqiu and began to learn photography under his guidance. Qian learned photographic knowledge and skills by reading professional books and through discussions with Zhang Jingqiu. Qian Junfu bought a Rolleiflex binocular camera for his son in support of his interest. As the saying goes, “A workman must sharpen his tools if he is to do his work well”, Qian Xuesen had gradually improved his photography skills after he owned this camera.

A couple of photos taken by Qian Xuesen were precious and had considerable historical and cultural value. The photos were the scenes with broken walls and tiles splashing all over the spots downtown Hangzhou, taken right after the bombardment by the Japanese invaders. People in these photos showed a mixed expression of confusion and worry towards the incoming war (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10

Photo by Qian Xuesen

The aftermath of bombardment by the Japanese invaders in Hangzhou,

In 1935, when the steamship President Jackson was sailing in the Pacific Ocean, Qian Xuesen was a “follow-up reporter” of these Boxer Bebellion Scholarship recipients selected through Tsinghua University, and took a lot of pictures of the people and scenery along the way. Qian’s interest in photography had always been keen when he was in the United States. He was a well-known photography enthusiast in the international student circle. He bought a Weltini camera with his scholarship, and had a photo studio set up in the rented apartment when he was a doctoral student. Fan Xuji, his roommate, said that he had “artistic and technical pursuits in photography” and he was not only skillful in “time, distance, angle and framing”, but also in “soft lens, magnification, splicing and synthesis techniques in the development and printing technology”. Qian Xuesen became a “professional photographer” in the gatherings of Chinese and he was even asked to be the photographer in Yuan Jialiu and Wu Jianxiong’s wedding.

Qian Xuesen was good at selfie, and skillful in handling light and angle. After his marriage in 1947, Qian became a full-time family photographer and took a lot of family photos. He would often select some fine photos to make a slide show to enjoy with the family. Under his guidance, his wife Jiang Ying made progress in photography and often took photos for Qian Xuesen. These photos not only provided images of Qian Xuesen’s daily life, but also offered a glimpse of Chinese students studying in the United States by showing their ways of dressing, living, dieting, and their hobbies and social activities.

3 Developing Interests in Aeronautic Engineering

It was a long-held view that Qian Xuesen started his journey to aerospace research when he passed the competitive examination for Boxer Rebellion scholarship administered by Tsinghua University in 1934. Recent studies indicate that Qian Xuesen had already explored aviation at Jiaotong University. However, at the time when aircraft major was set up in the College of Mechanical Engineering in Jiaotong University in the autumn semester in 1934, Qian Xuesen had graduated. Not until 1942, aeronautical engineering was established at Jiaotong University. A question may be asked: in what way was Qian Xuesen able to explore aeronautical knowledge at his college days? The answer could help us understand his turn of interest in his academic pursuit.

Publishing articles on aviation

Exact numbers of Qian Xuesen’s articles on aviation which were published before he studied in the United States are unknown. Six articles have been found so far, as listed in the follows:

• 1. “The American Large Airship Wreck and the Causes of the Construction of American Airship”, Air Force, No. 24, 1933

• 2. “Steam Engine Used in Aviation”, Air Force, 1933, No. 34

• 3. “Recent Development of Aircraft Guns”, Air Force, 1934, No. 67

• 4. “The Printing House of Flight”, World Knowledge, No. 7, 1934

• 5. “Comparison between Airship and Airplane and the Future Development of Airship”, Aviation Journal, No.1, 1935

• 6. “Rocket”, Zhejiang Youth, No. 9, 1935

The first three articles were published when Qian was studying at Jiaotong University and the other three were published during his internship in Nanchang, Hangzhou and Nanjing after being admitted to Tsinghua University as a Boxer Scholarship recipient.

The first article was a detailed analysis of the construction and crash of the American Akron airship (a helium-filled hard-hulled airship owned by the U.S. Navy, which crashed off the coast of New Jersey on April 4, 1933, killing 73 of the 76 people on board and leaving only three alive), but the article landed on why the British and American countries were interested in such a costly aviation project. After analyzing the causes of the airship’s crash, Qian Xuesen then asked: “Why did both Britain and the United States spend tens of millions of dollars to construct such large airships? What exactly was the airship used for, for military?” He continued, “We knew that the period of using airships to bombard enemy countries had passed, because it was vulnerable to aircraft attacks. Nowadays, airships were mainly used for reconnaissance missions. However, the navy could use cruisers or airplanes to carry out such mission. Then why did they use airships?” In the article, Qian made comprehensive comparisons between airship and cruiser, and between airship and airplane in terms of observation ability, cost, defense ability and carrying capacity, and concluded that airship had certain advantages. Finally, he pointed out that for China, there was no need to build airships at all and he listed three reasons:

Firstly, China had no colonies and was not a country with aggressive nature; therefore, there was no need for long-distance flights. Moreover, the entire land of Japan, China’s current enemy, was within the capability of long-range bombers, so there was no need to have airships that could fly 10,000 Li at one time. Secondly, the manufacturing cost of an airplane was only few hundred thousand yuan, while it would cost tens of millions of yuan for an airship. Moreover, compared with airship which required specialized technology, aircraft was easy to manufacture and the materials used for manufacturing aircraft were also easy to purchase. Even the United States had to consult German engineers in manufacturing an airship. China had no manufacturing capability under current situation. Thirdly, considering that China’s navy force was rather weak, there was certainly no need to manufacture special weapons such as airships. It was more necessary to develop a balanced and sound military navy force.

Three months later, Qian Xuesen published another article entitled “Steam Engine in Aviation” in Air Force. This article first reviewed the historical cases of steam engine used in aircraft, and then evaluated the feasibility of steam engine used in aircraft in three aspects: characteristics of steam engine used in aviation, current situation and successful experimental cases. Finally, Qian put: “The steam engine was theoretically superior over the gasoline engine, and the results of experiments had confirmed its strengths, and therefore, in the near future, we would foresee that the gasoline engine dominating the aviation industry today would be replaced by the steam engine in the near future.” He also put that it was precisely because of the advantages of the steam engine that many difficulties in manufacturing large aircraft could be overcome, resulting in the emergence of unprecedented large military aircraft. Qian Xuesen put forward rather an environmentalist point of view: “We must know that the steam engine did not use gasoline, and other kinds of fuels such as coal, charcoal and so on could be used. Therefore, it was of great value to countries that did not produce gasoline such as China. This was especially important when we called for “Saving the nation through aviation.”

The article entitled “Recent Development of Aircraft Gun” was published in Air Force three months before his graduation. It summarized the history, specialty, development and use of heavy artillery installed on aircraft. The experimental case cited in this article was that the British air force had installed a 37 mm caliber heavy gun on an aircraft. It was believed that this kind of aircraft gun had great power in the air, sea and land. Qian put: “This new type of aircraft gun was a result of the constant efforts of the British air force.”

All three articles were published in Air Force, a journal hosted by Air Force Weekly Publishing House of Central Aviation School. Air Force was first issued on November 12, 1932 and ceased publication in August 1937, and it had published 241 issues successively. Air Force was not academic journal and the readership was mainly college students. Its main purpose was to introduce aviation knowledge and propagandize “Saving the nation through aviation.” It was certain that the library of Jiaotong University subscribed to this journal and all the issues had been originally kept at the library of Jiaotong University as “Jiaotong University Library Collection” was shown on the cover. After the founding of People’s Republic of China, all the issues were transferred to Shanghai Library.

In 1934, Qian Xuesen was admitted to Tsinghua University to study in the United States as a Boxer Scholarship recipient, and was then arranged by Tsinghua University for a one-year professional internship. During this period, he published three more articles, entitled “The Printing House of Flight”, “Comparison between Airship and Aircraft and the Future Development of Airship”, and “Rocket”. “The Flying Printing House” was published in World Knowledge (Vol. 1, No. 7) on December 16, 1934, and was mainly devoted to the introduction of the largest Soviet airplane at that time, the Maxim Gorky. The main function of this plane was to carry a printing press, which was used as a propaganda tool in the Soviet Union. It could print more than 8,000 leaflets per hour and had a photo printing room, as well as 16 telephones, a broadcasting system, a room that could be used as a bathroom or kitchen, and a book display room. Obviously, such an article was of an introductory nature, so it was in the column of “Little Wisdom.”

The other two articles entitled, “Comparison between Airship and Aircraft” and “the Future Development of Airship”, were published in the Aviation Journal, No.1, 1935. Aviation Journal was a monthly, compiled by editorial board of Aviation Department. Qian Xuesen made a contrastive analysis of the performance of airship and aircraft, and suggested ways of improvement for airship. At that time, airship was a symbol of scientific and technological progress as well as national strength. However, with the increasing improvement of aircraft performance in the 1920s and 1930s, the military value of airship was gradually replaced by aircraft. In discussing airship’s prospect, Qian Xuesen suggested that more researches should be done in its improvement. Through comparison on the advantages and disadvantages of aircraft and airship in terms of flight efficiency, tonnage and passenger comfort, he commented on three aspects: firstly, there was still much room for improvement of airship and large airship was more promising while the tonnage of aircraft seemed to have reached a certain limit; secondly, for long-distance flight, the safety of airship was as good as that of aircraft; thirdly, there would be many large airships in air lines around the world in the near future. Though his last point was proved wrong as seen from the aviation history and his own science career, it showed Qian’s innovative thinking on aviation.

The article entitled “Rocket” was published in Zhejiang Youth in July, 1935, a monthly magazine compiled by Zhejiang Provincial Department of Education. Firstly, Qian Xuesen talked about the tool for human conquest of space, i.e., rocket, by introducing a news article in the Southeast Daily. Secondly, Qian Xuesen used a case in daily life to illustrate the principle of rocket ascent, i.e. Newton’s third law. When talking about gunpowder, Qian Xuesen used a diagram to list the discharge velocity and momentum of various explosive mixtures. After analyzing the boiling point and storage conditions of the mixture, he considered liquid oxygen and gasoline as the ideal fuel for rocket. Then, Qian Xuesen analyzed the construction of the rocket to the planet. In order to increase the thrust of the rocket, three stages of rockets were needed. One more stage should be added to travel to the moon, and two more stages should be added to travel to the Mars. Rocket plane was neither a dream, nor a myth, but could be realized. Finally, Qian Xuesen called for: “The whole world started to be enthusiastic about rockets; engineers and scientists were to be mobilized. They worked hard, patiently and step by step on the road to the universe. My friend, every step was solid!” This article was quite a sci-fi, reflecting Qian Xuesen’s firm will to explore unknown fields.

Qian Xuesen’s articles touched upon the fields of aircraft, spacecraft, rockets, engines for aviation, and aircraft guns (weapons). These fields were supported by the disciplinary knowledge of aerodynamics, steam engines, aerodynamics in wing design, rocket fuel and the concept of multi-stage rockets and interplanetary travel, which indicated that he had already formed a preliminary aviation knowledge system at university.

Aeronautical engineering at Jiaotong University

The Department of Aeronautics was formally established at Jiaotong University in 1942. As a matter of fact, as early as 1929, preparations had been made in setting up the aircraft major, and the major was formally set up in the fall semester of 1934. However, due to various reasons, the plan to establish the Department of Aeronautics in 1934 could not be implemented. Jiaotong University offered the elective courses in aeronautical engineering in the School of Mechanical Engineering for the fourth year students. Qian Xuesen had published articles on aeronautics in his junior year, and certainly he would not miss the fourth-year aeronautical engineering courses. Moreover, he ranked first among the 14 elective students in that year. A close look at the faculty, courses and textbooks in the school years of 1920 to 1923 enables us to know more about the teachers who taught the elective courses and the textbooks they used during this period in the following table (Table 2).

Table 2 List of Aeronautical Engineering Elective Courses at Jiaotong University

The aeronautical engineering course which Qian Xuesen attended was taught by Zeng Tong. The basic courses in the curriculum of School of Mechanical Engineering benefited Qian Xuesen a lot in his accumulation of rich knowledge in aeronautics. As such, students were selected from the School of Mechanical Engineering when aeronautics engineering major was set up in Tsinghua University, Zhejiang University and Central University.

Knowledge accumulation through extracurricular activities

Qian Xuesen’s knowledge on aeronautics displayed in these six articles was out of the scope of the curriculum. The collection of books in the library provided him with opportunities to learn more as he said many years later:

I majored in mechanical engineering and I often searched for books about internal combustion engine, diesel engine in particular. Although I was a major in railway mechanical engineering and my graduation project was steam locomotive, the books I borrowed from the library were not limited to this area. I read all the books about airship, airplane and aviation theory, as well as the books about U.S. rocket founder Robert Goddard. I remembered reading a book on aerodynamic theory on aircraft wings written by British scientist Hermann Glauert. Although I could not fully understand it at that time, it helped me enter the field of aerodynamics, the major area I was engaged in later.

It was through wide reading that Qian Xuesen came to know about the frontiers in science development and the latest achievements, and he was inspired to find new research topics. His interest in aeronautics engineering had been cultivated when he was a senior in university. Therefore, he decided to give up the internship arranged by the Ministry of Communications after graduation and wait for the examination for the scholarship. After being admitted to Tsinghua University, it took him only two weeks to understand general situation of aircraft design and manufacturing. It was impossible without previous accumulation of aviation knowledge.

Aviation science was an emerging and popular subject at that time. Air Force, Aviation, Zhejiang Youth, and other magazines where Qian Xuesen published his articles were not professional academic journal, but popular publications with the purpose of spreading scientific knowledge. For example, Small World: Picture Bimonthly, a magazine targeted at primary and secondary school students had excerpted his article “The American Large Airship Wreck and the Causes of the Construction of American Airship” in the 28th issue of 1933 with the title of “The Wreck of American Large Spaceship.” However, it cannot be ignored that it was Qian Xuesen’s initial exploration of aviation knowledge when he was studying at Jiaotong University that opened the door to his future aerospace science research.

4 Boxer Rebellion Scholar

In 1933, Tsinghua University began to openly select students to study in the United States (Boxer Rebellion Indemnity Scholarship program), and by 1944 it had enrolled six classes, totaling 132 students, known as the “National Tsinghua University State-funded Students.” These students have made great achievements and contributed greatly to the development of China’s politics, economy, science and culture in the twentieth century. Qian Xuesen was one of them.

Examination in Nanjing

Upon graduation from Jiaotong University in 1934, Qian Xuesen already made clear of his academic interest. He had two options in the pursuit of further study. One was to study in Italy on the conditions that he would pass the examination organized by the Ministry of Education. The other was to take the competitive examination for the Boxer scholarship administered by Tsinghua University and to study in the United States. Since serving in the Kuomintang Air Force was the prerequisite for the first option, Qian decided to opt for the second choice. Therefore, he did not participate in the internship of Beijing-Shanghai and Shanghai-Hangzhou-Ningbo Railways arranged by the Ministry of Communications upon graduation. Instead, he returned to Hangzhou to prepare for the examination administered by Tsinghua University.

Selection of students qualified for the Boxer Scholarship was an annual event of Tsinghua University. On May 12, 1934, a meeting was held to discuss methods and regulations of the examination and a Committee was organized to implement it. Mei Yiqi, the president of Tsinghua University, was the chairman of the Committee, and Zhang Zigao, Ye Qisun, Gu Yuxiu, Zhou Gensheng, Zhou Binglin, Bingzhi, Zhang Kezhi and other professors were the Committee members. The Ministry of Education sent an official to serve as a committee member to show its importance.

The selection of students studying in the United States was to “meet the urgent needs of China.” The selected students would specialize in the fields “which could not be researched domestically”, or “which lacked of specialists.” It can be seen that Tsinghua University had the ambitious and clear goal of selecting talents for the country. Corresponding regulations on the qualifications of participating in the examination were detailed as follows:

• 1. Candidates should be graduates from public colleges or universities, or private colleges or universities registered with the Ministry of Education, and had continued their researches in their fields for at least two years, or had written academic works or made other achievements.

• 2. Candidates should be graduates from public colleges or universities, or private colleges or universities registered with the Ministry of Education, and had held a technical position related to their scientific fields for at least two years.

• 3. Candidates should be graduates from public universities, or private or independent colleges registered with the Ministry of Education and had excellent academic results [1].

Registration for examination was held in Tsinghua University for candidates from Northern provinces or in Central University in Nanjing for candidates from southern provinces. The registration dates lasted from August 11 to 17, 1934. Only those who passed the physical examination were allowed to take the examination. On August 13, As soon as Qian Xuesen read the examination advertisement in Shen Bao Newspaper, he prepared the required registration materials and journeyed to Nanjing to get registered. He stayed in the home of his father’s student Li Linwu (then Commissioner of the Ministry of Education) at No. 20 Yihe Road in Nanjing, waiting for the exam. In October, twenty winners were announced. Qian Xuesen was so excited and relieved to be one of them. In the next spring, Qian carried out internship as required in Regulations for Boxer Rebellion Scholars Selected by National Tsinghua University. When he was in Nanjing for internship, he stayed with Li’s home again for a few days. In his later years, Tang Liling, Li Linwu’s wife, told his son Li Shengjiao: “Qian Xuesen wore a long robe, and black gauze around his left arm in memory of his mother who passed away not long ago.”

Along with his diploma, Qian Xuesen submitted his senior thesis, physical exam records, photographs, a vitae and published articles in the registration for the exam. In all, 176 students from 21 universities, including Tsinghua University, Jiaotong University and Peking University, signed up for the exam (118 students actually took the exam), of which eight students (six students actually took the exam) applied for aeronautical engineering. No one in Tsinghua University applied for aeronautical engineering.

The examinations were held in Beijing and Nanjing at the same time from August 21 to 28. Three subjects were tested with a total of 100 points: 10% for GMT party ideology, 20% for general subjects (8% for Chinese, 8% for English, 4% for either German or French), and 70% for professional subjects. The time limit of each subject was three hours. The candidates were required to answer in English if the questions were in English. It was unknown which language Qian had chosen as he studied German in high school and French in college. Qian Xuesen attended the exam in the aeronautical engineering (aircraft rack group), which had five subjects. Each subject and its test paper designer were listed as follows:

• 1. Calculus and Differential Equation, by Jiang Lifu, Nankai University

• 2. Applied Mechanics and Material Mechanics, by Luo Zhongchen, Tangshan Institute of Technology

• 3. Thermodynamics, by Zhang Jiarang, Nanjing Construction Committee

• 4. Architecture, by Cai Fangyin, Tsinghua University

• 5. Mechanical Design and Principle, by Du Guangzu, Jiaotong University

• 6. Aeronautical Engineering, by Wang Shizhuo, Tsinghua University [2]

Two subjects, Structural Science or Mechanical Design Principle, were elective. It was assumed that Qian had taken the latter one as he took this course at university. After the examination, Qian returned to Hangzhou, waiting for the results. On September 28, the examination committee finished the scoring and reviewed the test results, and finally determined the qualified ones in each area.

The announcement day

In October 2, twenty winners were announced after the competitive examinations, five less than the set admission number, as the examination committee made a consensus that all the winners should reach average score of 50 points. As it turned out, Qian was the only one who would be studying aeronautics.

The total average score of the six candidates who applied for the aeronautical engineering was below 60 points. Qian Xuesen ranked the first. The articles submitted by Qian impressed the examination committee a lot with its academic quality. The winners were considered as lucky as they were able to pursue their dreams. For Qian Xuesen, it was golden opportunity as he could learn aeronautics systematically. He recalled later: “I won the scholarship to study in the United States in summer of 1934. Since then, I turned to aeronautical engineering. I had one month’s internship in aircraft factories in Jianqiao, Hangzhou, and Nanchang.”

Professional internship

According to Regulations for Boxer Rebellion Scholars Selected by National Tsinghua University, the scholarship recipients were required to carry out field investigation or internship for six months to one year in China before going to the United State so as to get full preparation and to learn more about the practical national needs. Each recipient was allotted some advisors to provide advice on and approve their internship. Qian Xuesen was assigned with four advisors, Wang Zhu, Wang Shiluo, Qian Shenjue and Wang Shoujing. He had interned at air factories in Hangzhou, Nanchang, Nanjing and Shanghai for about half a year.

During his internship, Qian Xuesen wrote seven letters to the Office of the President of Tsinghua University. The contents of the letters were mainly concerned with professional internship, living allowance and procedures for going abroad. In the first letter written at the airplane manufacturing factory in Jianqiao, Hangzhou on September 15, 1934, he wrote:

Under the guidance of Mr. Wang Zhu (his advisor and the inspector at Jiangqiao airplane factor), I had read various magazines and research reports and practiced drawing diagrams. I learned knowledge concerning aircraft manufacturing. A few months later, I was scheduled to go for an internship at Mr. Qian Zijue’s office and to the aircraft factories under Aviation Commission. However, I wished my internship would start four weeks later due to my family reason. Mr. Wang suggested I could arrive at the factory as soon as possible. I would also like to ask your Office to send the living allowance directly to me according to the Regulations.

The family reason mentioned in the letter was that Qian Xuesen had to return home as his mother was critically ill. Unfortunately, his mother passed away shortly afterwards. After the funeral, Qian Xuesen returned to the airplane factory to continue his internship on December 9. The professional internship focused on practical courses, supplemented by theoretical study and was provided with living allowance of 50 yuan per month.

Qian’s internship started in the woodworking section, and then in mechanical engineering and metalworking sections in Hangzhou Jianqiao Airplane Factory which lasted up until the end of April, 1935. After that, he spent two months on the internship in Nanchang No.2 Airplane Repair Factory, Nanjing No.1 Aircraft Repair Factory and Shanghai Navy Aircraft Office. During his internship, besides a monthly allowance of 50 yuan, Qian was reimbursed for the travel expenses, 62.25 yuan and 83.40 yuan respectively, as shown in the archival records in Tsinghua University.

Reimbursement list submitted by Qian Xuesen on May 7, 1935:

Third class train from Hangzhou to Shanghai: two yuan and ninety cents

Third class train from Shanghai to Nanjing: three yuan and seventy-five cents;

Official cabin from Nanjing to Jiujiang: eleven yuan;

Third class train from Jiujiang to Nanchang: three yuan and ten cents

One way trip total: twenty yuan and seventy-five cents

Round trip total: forty-one yuan and fifty cents

50% of the cost of accommodation: twenty yuan and seventy-five cents

Total: sixty-two yuan and twenty-five cents

Reimbursement list submitted on June 25, 1935

Third class train ticket from Hangzhou to Beijing: twenty-seven yuan and eighty cents

Round trip total: fifty-five yuan and sixty cents

50% of the cost of accommodation: twenty-seven yuan and eighty cents

Total: eighty-three yuan and forty cents

During his internship in Hangzhou, Qian Xuesen learned that Tsinghua University was building a wind tunnel. In his letter to the president’s office on June 25, he asked to visit the laboratory when he went to Tsinghua in handling formalities of going abroad. He wrote:

Mr. Wang Shizhuo, Professor of Aeronautics, met with Mr. Qang Yupeng in Hangzhou and they talked about the installation of wind tunnel. I thought knowing something about wind tunnel shall be helpful to my future research. Professor Wang would stay at the University during summer holidays, and it would be a good opportunity for me to learn from him.

After receiving the letter, Mei Yiqi sought opinion from Wang Shizhuo on July 2, whether the wind tunnel project would be in progress in July and whether Qian could benefit from visiting it. Wang replied that students going to study in the United States should be encouraged to visit their alma mater. But he also mentioned that for the wind tunnel project, there would not be much to see at that time. Despite this, Mei Yiqi replied to Qian on July 4 to express his wish to meet him. They had met and talked but there was no record of the interview.