Governance of the State

Jing, Tiankui

doi:10.1007/978-981-19-5681-2_6

Tiankui Jing³

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Abstract

The thinkers and statesmen of China’s past proposed an abundance of doctrines on governance in the course of pondering and practicing the administration of the state, and these constitute an important part of traditional Chinese social thought. Within the system of Chinese sociology, which takes as its general framework the concepts of self-cultivation, regulation of the family, governance, and peace, governance of the state holds an essential position, being an upward extension of self-cultivation and regulation of the family, while assuming from on high the task of bringing peace to all under Heaven. Traditional Chinese social thought on governance of the state was both wide-ranging and profound, and the basic categories which embody its core ideas include guo (state) and min (people), guotu (state territory), shi (scholar), wangdao (the Way of the king) and badao (the Way of the hegemon), xian (worth) and neng (ability), keju (the imperial civil service examination), gong (public) and si (private), zhixu (order), and weiyu (position and advancement), touching upon the basic problems of state governance, spatial governance, the elite class, forms of governance, standards and systems for the selection and promotion of state administrators, the boundary between the state and the individual, as well as the objectives and ideal condition of governance.

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Notes

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123.
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133.
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135.
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137.
There are two representative views on the composition of the Five Hegemons: Sima Qian argued that they included Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, King Zhuang of Chu, Duke Mu of Qin, and Duke Xiang of Song; Xunzi believed that they referred to Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, King Zhuang of Chu, King Helü of Wu and King Gou Jian of Yue. This section adopts Sima Qian’s view.
138.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of Mencius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2012), 77.
139.
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140.
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141.
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142.
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143.
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144.
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145.
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146.
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147.
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148.
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149.
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150.
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151.
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152.
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153.
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154.
Zhao and Lin, The Way of the King and the Way of the Hegemon—The Historical Dividing Line Between Chinese and Western Culture and Consideration of the Reality, 5–6.
155.
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156.
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157.
Ibid., 181.
158.
Wang, “The Way of the King and the Way of the Hegemon in Traditional Chinese Politics”.
159.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Analects of Confucius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2009), 11.
160.
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161.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Analects of Confucius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2009), 134.
162.
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163.
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164.
Wang Weiwei, ed., Translation and Annotation of Xunzi (Shanghai: Shanghai Sanlian Bookstore, 2014), 144.
165.
Geng, Translation and Annotation of Guanzi, 181.
166.
Ibid.
167.
Wang, Translation and Annotation of Xunzi, 63.
168.
Geng, Translation and Annotation of Guanzi, 5.
169.
Wang Wang, Book of Documents, 157.
170.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of Mencius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2012), 6.
171.
Ibid., 125.
172.
Wang, Interpretation of the Analects of Confucius, 260.
173.
Chen Tongsheng, ed., Discourses of the States (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2013), 379.
174.
Wang, Interpretation of the Analects of Confucius, 2.
175.
Ibid., 3.
176.
Ibid., 652.
177.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Analects of Confucius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2009), 176.
178.
Ibid., 7.
179.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of Mencius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2012), 363–364.
180.
Wang, Translation and Annotation of Xunzi, 21.
181.
Xu Zhengying and Chang Peiyu, eds., Rites of Zhou (I) (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2014), 808.
182.
Fang Yong and Li Bo, eds., Xunzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 162.
183.
Guo Dan, Cheng Xiaoqing and Li Binyuan, eds., Commentary of Zuo (Volume II) (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2012), 873.
184.
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185.
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186.
Wang, Translation and Annotation of Xunzi, 48.
187.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Analects of Confucius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2009), 38.
188.
Chen Qiaojian, The Debate over Public and Private: Historical Extension and Modern Exposition (Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing, 2013), 225–226.
189.
Fang Yong and Li Bo, eds., Xunzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 451.
190.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Analects of Confucius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2009), 21–22.
191.
Fang Yong and Li Bo, eds., Xunzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 429.
192.
Li, Collation and Annotation of Guanzi, 914.
193.
Gao Huaping, Wang Qizhou and Zhang Sanxi, eds., Han Feizi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 41.
194.
Ibid., 180.
195.
Shi Xianqun, Study of the Thought of the Legalist School on ‘Governance by Rule of Law’ (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2010), 132.
196.
Qian Xizuo, ed., Grand Compendium of the Schools of Thought (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1954), 3.
197.
Gao Huaping, Wang Qizhou and Zhang Sanxi, eds., Han Feizi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 652.
198.
As cited in Shi Xianqun, Study of the Thought of the Legalist School on ‘Governance by Rule of Law,’ 141.
199.
Gao Huaping, Wang Qizhou and Zhang Sanxi, eds., Han Feizi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 703.
200.
Shi Lei, ed., The Book of Lord Shang (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2011), 103.
201.
Li, Guanzi, 263.
202.
Shi Lei, The Book of Lord Shang (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2011), 24.
203.
Ibid., 31.
204.
Li, Guanzi, 263–264.
205.
Chen Kaixian, “Thought on the ‘Combined Ways of the King and the Hegemon’ and its Administrative Wisdom,” Journal of South China Agricultural University (Social Sciences), no. 3 (2005).
206.
Fang Yong and Li Bo, eds., Xunzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 165.
207.
Geng, Translation and Annotation of Guanzi, 152.
208.
Gao Huaping, Wang Qizhou and Zhang Sanxi, eds., Han Feizi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 681.
209.
Ibid., 310–311.
210.
Ibid., 62.
211.
Ibid., 163.
212.
Ibid., 77.
213.
See Gao Huaping, Wang Qizhou and Zhang Sanxi, eds., Han Feizi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 318.
214.
See Shi, Study on the Thought of the Legalist School on ‘Governance by Rule of Law,’ 183–211.
215.
Gao Huaping, Wang Qizhou and Zhang Sanxi, eds., Han Feizi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 54.
216.
Ibid., 533.
217.
Ibid., 395.
218.
Ibid., 35.
219.
Meng Leile, “On the Early Confucian Debate on the Way of the King—Between Value Rationality and Instrumental Rationality,” Journal of China Three Gorges University (Humanities and Social Sciences), no. 5 (2012).
220.
Xia Zhengnong and Chen Zhili, eds., Cihai (Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House, 1980), 1222.
221.
Zhang Lening et al., Introduction to Sociology (Beijing: Central China Radio and TV University Press, 1986), 334.
222.
Cheng Zhenke and Yan Cen, Twelve Lectures on Sociology (Beijing: New World Press, 2017), 205.
223.
Yang Jie, ed., The Four Books and Five Classics (Changchun: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd., 2011), 38.
224.
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225.
Si Lü, ed., The Four Books and Five Classics (Nanjing: Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House, 2014), 86.
226.
Ibid., 78.
227.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Analects of Confucius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1968), 130.
228.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of Mencius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1984), 267.
229.
Complete Book of the Hundred Schools of Thought (Changsha: Yuelu Publishing House, 1993), 2: 1259.
230.
Si, The Four Books and Five Classics, 76–77.
231.
Ibid., 170.
232.
Ibid., 170.
233.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of Mencius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1984), 75.
234.
Complete Book of the Hundred Schools of Thought (Changsha: Yuelu Publishing House, 1993), 1: 436.
235.
Geng Tianqin, “On the Formation and Development of Liu Zhiji’s Theory on the ‘Three Strengths of the Talented Historian,’” Journal of Shandong Normal University (Social Sciences), no. 4 (1999).
236.
Twenty-Five Histories (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1986), 6: 4595.
237.
Sima Guang, Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance (Changsha: Yuelu Publishing House, 1990), 1: 4.
238.
Ibid.
239.
Ibid.
240.
Ibid.
241.
Ibid.
242.
Ibid.
243.
Ibid.
244.
The Four Books and Five Classics (Beijing: Thread-Binding Books Publishing House, 2010), 127.
245.
Wu Chucai and Wu Diaohou, eds., Guwen Guanzhi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1980), 276–277.
246.
Kong Fanli, ed., Collected Works of Su Shi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986), 140.
247.
Twenty-Five Histories, 260.
248.
Fang Xuanling, Book of Jin (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1974), 1058.
249.
Ibid., 127.
250.
Lin Geng and Feng Yuanjun, eds., Selection of Historical Chinese Poems and Songs (Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House, 1964), 179.
251.
Twenty-Five Histories, 3256.
252.
Ibid., 3259.
253.
Ibid., 3854.
254.
Ibid., 4254.
255.
Ibid., 4254.
256.
Ibid., 2026.
257.
Huang Liuzhu, Outline of the Ancient Chinese Systems for the Selection of Officials (Xi’an: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House, 1989), 268.
258.
Twenty-Five Histories, 4690.
259.
Ma Duanlin, Comprehensive Examination of Literature (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986), 273.
260.
Ibid., 276–277.
261.
Twenty-Five Histories, 4256.
262.
Ibid., 4257.
263.
Ibid., 4257.
264.
Huang Liuzhu, Outline of the Ancient Chinese Systems for the Selection of Officials, 200.
265.
Li Tao, Continuation to Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance: Unabridged Edition (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1979), 734.
266.
Huang Liuzhu, Outline of the Ancient Chinese Systems for the Selection of Officials, 280.
267.
Twenty-Five Histories, 4255.
268.
Chen Dengyuan, History of Education in China (Shenyang: Liaoning Education Press, 1998), 203.
269.
Su Song, Collected Works of Duke Su of Wei (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1988), 213.
270.
Chen Dengyuan, Past Events in National History (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2000), 615.
271.
Tang Ting, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Essays of Suiyuan on Poetry (Beijing: Beijing United Publishing Co., Ltd., 2015), 254.
272.
Chen Dengyuan, Past Events in National History, 221.
273.
Deng Liqun et al., Reference Materials on Modern Chinese History (Dalian: New China Bookstore, 1949), 322.
274.
Chen Dengyuan, Past Events in National History, 616.
275.
Ibid., 617.
276.
Bai Fang, Appellations for Human Relations and Social Change in the Qin and Han Dynasties (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2010), 47.
277.
Ibid., 48.
278.
Xu Fuhong, Collected Collations and Collected Commentaries on Shenzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2013), 18.
279.
Chen, The Debate over Public and Private: Historical Extension and Modern Exposition, 134.
280.
Zhu Xi, Complete Works of Zhuzi (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House / Hefei: Anhui Education Press, 2003), 22: 1917.
281.
Chen, The Debate over Public and Private: Historical Extension and Modern Exposition, 22–33.
282.
Zhou Zhenfu, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Book of Poetry (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2010), 76.
283.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Analects of Confucius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2009), 98.
284.
Chen, The Debate over Public and Private: Historical Extension and Modern Exposition, 15–16.
285.
Wang, Interpretation of the Analects of Confucius, 148.
286.
Ibid., 258.
287.
Yang Yiqin, “Traditional Chinese Views on Public and Private and Their Shortcomings,” Journal of Shanghai Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences), no. 2 (2010).
288.
Fang Yong and Li Bo, eds., Xunzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 35.
289.
Ibid., 199.
290.
Ibid., 23.
291.
Chen Guangzhong, ed., Huainanzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2012), 2: 1267.
292.
Fang Yong, ed., Mozi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 52.
293.
Chen, The Debate over Public and Private: Historical Extension and Modern Exposition, 59.
294.
Tang Zhangping and Wang Chaohua, eds., Laozi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2014), 61.
295.
Ibid., 73.
296.
Fang Yong, ed., Zhuangzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 449.
297.
Ibid., 450.
298.
Ibid., 125.
299.
Li, Guanzi, 243.
300.
Gao Huaping, Wang Qizhou and Zhang Sanxi, eds., Han Feizi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 475.
301.
Ibid., 183.
302.
Ibid., 652.
303.
Chen, The Debate over Public and Private: Historical Extension and Modern Exposition, 95.
304.
Guo Zhenxiang, “Preliminary Exploration of Views on Public and Private in Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism,” Jianghan Tribune, no. 6 (2003).
305.
Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, Collected Works of the Cheng Brothers (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2004), 144.
306.
Zhu Xi, Textual Analysis and Collected Commentaries on the Four Books (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1983), 283.
307.
As cited in Chen, The Debate over Public and Private: Historical Extension and Modern Exposition, 104.
308.
Cheng and Cheng, Collected Works of the Cheng Brothers, 124.
309.
Ibid., 176.
310.
Chen, The Debate over Public and Private: Historical Extension and Modern Exposition, 122–123.
311.
Ibid., 127.
312.
Yuan Xiuli, “On the Basic Characteristics of Confucian Views on Public and Private,” Eastern Forum, no. 2 (2016).
313.
As cited in Yuan Xiuli, “On the Basic Characteristics of Confucian Views on Public and Private”.
314.
Li Airong, “Rights Consciousness in the Qing Dynasty Concepts of Public and Private,” Modern Philosophy, no. 2 (2012).
315.
Wang Chongjiang, “Manifestations of the ‘Private’ in the Ming and Qing Dynasties and its Association with Social History,” in Liu Zehua, Zhang Rongming et al., The Concepts of Public and Private and Chinese Society (Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 2003), 170.
316.
Shen Shanhong and Wu Guang, eds., Complete Works of Huang Zongxi (Hangzhou: Zhejiang Classics Publishing House, 2005), 1: 2.
317.
Chen, The Debate over Public and Private: Historical Extension and Modern Exposition, 159.
318.
Gu Yanwu, Selected Poetry and Prose of Gu Tinglin (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1983), 14.
319.
Gu, Record of Daily Study, 148.
320.
Zhu Zhengping, “From ‘Upholding the Public and Suppressing the Private’ to ‘Esteeming the Public and Emphasizing the Private’—the Modern Transformation of Confucian Views on Public and Private,” Eastern Forum, no. 3 (2012).
321.
Guo Qiyong and Chen Qiaojian, “Views of Confucius, Mencius and the Confucian School on Public and Private and the Ethics of Public Affairs,” Social Sciences in China, no. 1 (2009).
322.
Fei, From the Soil and The Institutions for Reproduction, 30.
323.
Ibid.
324.
Chen Jianyou, “Public and Private Were the Fundamental Points of Support for the Operation of Traditional Chinese Society,” in Liu, Zhang et al., The Concepts of Public and Private and Chinese Society, 311–328.
325.
Wang and Wang, Book of Documents, 471.
326.
See Ge Quan and Zhang Changhong, “Analysis of Three Domains of ‘Views on Public and Private,’” in Liu, Zhang et al., The Concepts of Public and Private and Chinese Society, 329–350.
327.
Cihai Editorial Committee, ed., Cihai (Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House, 1999), 4969.
328.
Xing Jianguo, Wang Qingsong and Wu Pengsen, Discourse on Order (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1993), 2.
329.
Ibid., 5.
330.
Zhou Zhenfu, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Book of Poetry (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2002), 370.
331.
Fang Xiaoru, Collected Works of Xunzhi Studio, ed. Xu Guangda (Ningbo: Ningbo Publishing House, 2000), 667.
332.
Fang Yong and Li Bo, eds., Xunzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 83.
333.
Ibid.
334.
Pian Yuqian and Pian Hua, eds., Essentials of Governance of the Zhenguan Reign (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2009), 200–201.
335.
Lu Xueyi and Wang Chuhui, eds., Selected Sources on the History of Chinese Social Thought (Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Edition) (Nanning: Guangxi People’s Press, 2007), 572.
336.
Li Huiling and Lü Youren, eds., Book of Rites (Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House, 2015), 197.
337.
Gu Min, ed., Treasury of Ancient Chinese Classics: Records of the Grand Historian (I) (Beijing: Beijing Yanshan Press, 2001), 28.
338.
Zhou Zhenfu, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Book of Poetry (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2002), 461.
339.
Wang, Interpretation of the Analects of Confucius, 701.
340.
Ibid., 702.
341.
Fang Yong and Li Bo, eds., Xunzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 253.
342.
Sima Guang, Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance, ed. Yu Yuan (Changchun: Jilin Literature and History Publishing House, 2009), 8.
343.
Huang Rucheng, ed., Record of Daily Study (I) (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2006), 528.
344.
Cihai Editorial Committee, Cihai, 8.
345.
Cao Chuji, Simple Commentary on Zhuangzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2007), 154.
346.
Gu Qian, ed., Book of Documents (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2016), 43.
347.
Wang Chuhui, History of Chinese Social Thought (Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 2015), 300.
348.
Ibid.
349.
Ibid.
350.
Lu and Wang, Selected Sources on the History of Chinese Social Thought (Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Edition), 530.
351.
Zhu Xi, Textual Analysis and Collected Commentaries on the Four Books (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company), 36.
352.
Li Xueqin, Orthodox Interpretation of the Book of Rites (Beijing: Peking University Press, 1980), 1081.
353.
Li Xueqin, Commentaries and Subcommentaries on the Analects of Confucius (Beijing: Peking University Press, 1980), 251.
354.
See Fei Xiaotong, From the Soil (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2015), 30.
355.
Li Huiling and Lü Youren, eds., Book of Rites (Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House, 2015), 373.
356.
See Fei Xiaotong, From the Soil (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2015), 31.
357.
Liang Shuming, The Essentials of Chinese Culture (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Press, 2005), 20.
358.
Ibid., 51, 70.
359.
Li Huiling and Lü Youren, eds., Book of Rites (Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House, 2015), 246.
360.
Ibid., 247.
361.
Yang Bojun, ed., Translation and Annotation of the Analects of Confucius (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2006), 8.
362.
See Hu Yipeng, “A Brief Discussion of the Sociological Character of the History of Chinese Social Thought,” Journal of Social Sciences, no. 2 (2011).
363.
Fang Yong and Li Bo, eds., Xunzi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 15.
364.
Zhang Jue, ed., Translation and Annotation of Han Feizi (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2007), 748.
365.
Ibid., 688.
366.
Rao Shangkuan, ed., Laozi (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2016), 58.
367.
Wang Chuhui, History of Chinese Social Thought (Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 2015), 166.
368.
Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, Collected Works of the Cheng Brothers, ed. Wang Xiaoyu (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1981), 125.
369.
See Chen Dinghong, History of Chinese Social Thought (Beijing: Peking University Press, 1990), 489.
370.
Ibid., 654.
371.
Jing Tiankui, “Differentiating Between the Source and the Flow of Chinese Sociology”.
372.
Fei, From the Soil, 242.
373.
Pan Naigu, “Pan Guangdan’s Interpretation of ‘Position and Advancement,’” Northwestern Journal of Ethnology, no. 1 (2000).
374.
Fei Xiaotong, “Individual? Group? Society—Self-Reflection on a Lifetime of Scholarship,” Journal of Peking University (Philosophy and Social Sciences), no. 1 (1994).
375.
Zhu Xi, Collected Commentaries on the Four Books (Changsha: Yuelu Publishing House, 2004), 21–22.
376.
Zhu Xi, Textual Analysis and Collected Commentaries on the Four Books (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1983), 18.
377.
Pan Guangdan, Confucian Social Thought, 177.
378.
Jiao Ruoshui, “Human Ecology and Position, Advancement, Equilibrium and Harmony: The Origins of Chinese Community Theory and National Character,” Academia Bimestris, no. 4 (2014).
379.
Fei, Fei Xiaotong on Culture and Cultural Consciousness, 312–315.
380.
Ibid., 190.
381.
Ibid., 326.
382.
Pan Guangdan, Confucian Social Thought, 155.
383.
Pan Naimu and Pan Naihe, eds., Collected Works of Pan Guangdan (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2000), 9: 48.
384.
Ibid., 64.
385.
Pan Guangdan, Confucian Social Thought, 177.
386.
Pan Naimu and Pan Naihe, eds., Collected Works of Pan Guangdan (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2000), 8: 439.
387.
Pan Naigu, “Pan Guangdan’s Interpretation of ‘Position and Advancement’”.
388.
Pan Naimu and Pan Naihe, eds., Collected Works of Pan Guangdan (Beijing: Peking University Press, 1995), 3: 181.
389.
Pan Naimu and Pan Naihe, eds., Collected Works of Pan Guangdan (Beijing: Peking University Press, 1994), 2: 64–65.
390.
Pan Naimu and Pan Naihe, eds., Collected Works of Pan Guangdan (Beijing: Peking University Press, 1995), 3: 35.
391.
Pan Naimu and Pan Naihe, eds., Collected Works of Pan Guangdan (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2000), 10: 47.
392.
Pan Naimu and Pan Naihe, eds., Collected Works of Pan Guangdan (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2000), 8: 554–557.
393.
Ibid., 439.
394.
Pan Guangdan, Confucian Social Thought, 112.
395.
Ibid., 140.
396.
Pan Naimu and Pan Naihe, eds., Collected Works of Pan Guangdan (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2000), 9: 43–49.
397.
Pan Naimu and Pan Naihe, eds., Collected Works of Pan Guangdan (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2000), 6: 105, 107.
398.
Ibid., 81.
399.
Li Quansheng, “What Does the Way of Position and Advancement Transcend?,” Reading, no. 11 (1997).
400.
Li Jianzhou, “‘Discourse of Rank and Advancement’: A Lonesome Approach to the Indigenization of Sociology,” The Journal of Humanities, no. 2 (2003).
401.
Pan Naimu and Pan Naihe, eds., Collected Works of Pan Guangdan (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2000), 9: 238–241, 587–594.
402.
Pan Guangdan, Confucian Social Thought, 234.
403.
Fei, Fei Xiaotong on Culture and Cultural Consciousness, 325.

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Jing, T. (2022). Governance of the State. In: The Origins and Continuity of Chinese Sociology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5681-2_6

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