Keywords

6.1 Introduction

The number of Indigenous postgraduate students who enrol in higher degrees by research (HDR) programs has increased 89% since 2005 (Universities Australia, 2020). However, despite the growth in the enrolments in recent years, the completion rates of Indigenous postgraduate research students remain low, and only 0.84% or 54 Indigenous HDR students completed their study in 2018 (Universities Australia, 2020). The disparity between Indigenous and non-Indigenous participation and completion rates for degree qualification is apparent in Australian higher education (Australian Government Department of Education, 2019; Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020; Trudgett, 2011; Universities Australia, 2020). As Trudgett (2011) suggested, “in order for parity to be realized, completion rates of Indigenous doctoral students need to be increased, it is essential that ways to redress such disparity are understood and actioned” (p. 389). There is a growing body of literature that recognises the important role of supervision in supporting Indigenous HDR students in completing their research study (Anderson et al., 2021; Cardilini et al., 2021; Harrison et al., 2017; Hutchings et al., 2018; Trudgett, 2014). However, the research to date has tended to focus on Indigenous HDR students’ needs and experiences to better support them holistically and guide them to degree completion (see Chap. 5 for details). Surprisingly, the needs and experiences of supervisors of Indigenous HDR students have not been closely examined.

This chapter presents the findings from our research, which sought to explore the needs and experiences of supervisors in supervising Indigenous HDR students, to better support Indigenous HDR students. In this chapter, the perceptions of quality supervision from the perspectives of supervisors of Indigenous HDR students will be revealed. We also discuss the good practices and concerns when supervising Indigenous HDR students. In addition, the required professional development for supervisors of Indigenous HDR to enable students to successfully complete their research project will be reported.

6.1.1 Supervising Indigenous HDR Students

Indigenous HDR students are distinct from undergraduates in the university system (Hutchings et al., 2019), and supervising Indigenous HDR students requires supervisors to appreciate and learn about Indigenous knowledge and cultural understanding in addition to their expertise. Several lines of evidence suggest that supervisors of Indigenous HDR students can experience the issue of insufficient Indigenous methodologies and/or cultural knowledge (Grant & McKinley, 2011; Hutchings et al., 2019); and “problems can emerge in the relationship between Indigenous HDR students and supervisors when this relationship is overlaid with cultural difference” (Trudgett, 2011, p. 389). As discussed earlier in Chap. 5, a good rapport in the Indigenous student–supervisor relationship strongly supports Indigenous HDR students and is a key factor that contributes to the success of HDR students in completing their research degree. However, building a good rapport in the Indigenous HDR student–supervisor relationship is a reciprocal process: both supervisors and students have to build this relationship cooperatively based on trust and respect since they are not only in the relationship of supervisors and students, but also in the partnership of a long research journey.

In her research of supervision, Trudgett (2011) reported that 47% of participants in her study believed that Indigenous supervision is extremely important. Unfortunately, it would be an impossible and unreasonable task for every Indigenous HDR student to be supervised by an Indigenous supervisor, due to the lack of Indigenous supervisors in Australian higher education. Hence, it is critical to enhance the supervisory development (Henry, 2007; Wilson, 2017) and training of supervisors (both Indigenous and non-Indigenous supervisors; Trudgett, 2011) to better prepare them to work with and supervise Indigenous HDR students.

Supervising Indigenous HDR students requires supervisors to be advocates for their Indigenous candidates, while also reinforcing the motivation and passion of the HDR candidates for their selected research topic (Henry, 2007). Henry (2007) also suggested that supervisors need to be strategic in guiding their HDR students on the journey towards successful completion and that they should develop their Indigenous knowledge, understanding and connectedness, thereby strengthen their relationship with the student as a cultural resource person of high value. However, cultural responsibility and fear of cultural alienation are a unique feature that can potentially impact the success of Indigenous students (Henry, 2007). Therefore, supervisors of Indigenous HDR students must be aware of these issues and be prepared to respond and provide appropriate direction to available resources to assist in finding resolutions (Henry, 2007). Furthermore, Trudgett (2011) recommended that cultural awareness training should be introduced to supervisors of Indigenous students as such awareness can be critical for Indigenous students to achieve their best results.

6.1.2 Roles and Responsibilities of Supervisors

The literature on supervision of Indigenous HDR students has highlighted several responsibilities of researchers in the role of supervisors. Supervisors of Indigenous HDR students not only play the role of a research guide who provides guidance to students and accompanies them in their research journey, but they also have ethical responsibilities, including awareness of Indigenous studies, Indigenous methodologies and Indigenous communities. Furthermore, supervisors have a responsibility to strengthen their supervisory skills by participating in supervision development and cultural awareness training workshops to best support research students, particularly Indigenous HDR students.

It is obvious that guidance is one of the responsibilities of supervisors in higher education. Cardilini et al. (2021) state that “supervisors have a strong responsibility to give guidance and feedback on critical thinking, written communication, and relevant discipline knowledge” (p. 11). However, students in Cardilini et al.’s study also expected supervisors to provide more guidance on developing academic independence, collaboration skills and to maintain motivation. The literature has reported that HDR students who are actively supported and guided to increase their academic independence and collaboration skills will likely have positive effects on their motivation and productivity as well as assist them to develop independent ideas and teamwork skills (Lariviere, 2012; Sinclair et al., 2014).

Supervising Indigenous HDR students additionally requires supervisors to maintain an ethical responsibility “to ensure that the research they [Indigenous HDR students] undertake is beneficial to the Indigenous community and the knowledge they produce reflects accurately local Indigenous worldview” (Wilson, 2017, p. 262). According to Wilson (2017), it is essential for supervisors to have a critical understanding of the past and contemporary context regarding socio-political and historical aspects that have influenced Indigenous communities. Furthermore, supervising Indigenous students who use Indigenous methodologies in the Indigenous community context demands that supervisors have cultural knowledge and cultural awareness of these complex issues (Durie, 2004; Trudgett, 2014).

A growing body of literature has focused on the awareness of the cultural safety and cultural knowledge for supervisors of Indigenous HDR students (Barney, 2016; Behrendt et al., 2012; Durie, 2004; Hutchings et al., 2018; Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020; Trudgett, 2011, 2014); it was found that it is vital for supervisors to participate in cultural awareness training to best support Indigenous HDR students. Also, it is the universities’ responsibility to offer cultural awareness training for supervisors. Trudgett (2014) suggested that cultural awareness training should be mandatory to university academic staff and supervisors of Indigenous students “to create a better environment where students feel culturally safe and understood” (p. 1043). Therefore, it is also a responsibility of supervisors to enhance their supervision skills and knowledge by participating in cultural awareness training.

6.2 Methodology

This chapter focuses on the data regarding supervisors of Indigenous HDR students who have experience in supervising these students (i.e. PhD, EdD and/or Master’s by research students) at an Australian university and/or higher education institution. An online survey via Qualtrics platform was developed by the authors to collect this data.

Using university networks via email, 33 participants who were supervisors of Indigenous HDR students were recruited from across Australia (see Table 6.1).

Table 6.1 Dataset used to inform this chapter
Full size table

All of the participants had experience in supervising at least one Indigenous HDR student or were currently supervising Indigenous HDR students. This research focused on seeking to understand supervisors’ perceptions of quality supervision and the experiences of supervising Indigenous HDR students, including opportunities and challenges they may face during the supervision process.

The survey comprised demographic questions about participants’ ethnicity (i.e. Indigenous or non-Indigenous), highest qualification, years of experience in supervision role, experience of supervising Indigenous HDR students and eight open-ended questions asking participants to share their experience about quality supervision and/or experience with Indigenous HDR students. In the open-ended questions, we also asked participants what professional development is required for supervisors to ensure successful completion of Indigenous HDR students.

Data was analysed using NVivo software. All data uploaded into NVivo will then be coded to identify themes. Once the themes are identified, the data will then be compared to what is reported in the literature.

This qualitative research employed a thematic analysis using NVivo Pro 12 software to analyse data. The open-ended responses collected from the online survey via Qualtrics platform were coded into nodes to identify the themes. The nodes consisted of the questions we asked supervisors of Indigenous HDR students in the online survey. A line-by-line analysis was undertaken to code the passages of text to one or many nodes. Each code was viewed to understand the data that resides with it. The next step involved adding themes about experience and needs of HDR supervisors.

6.3 Results

In this section, we discuss the findings from the online survey in relation to the quality supervision from the perspectives of supervisors and the experiences of supervisors of Indigenous HDR students in the following categories:

  • The results from the demographic questions

  • Quality supervision from supervisors’ perspectives

  • Good practices and concerns in supervision

  • Professional development for supervisors of Indigenous HDR students.

6.3.1 Demographic Questions

Thirty-three supervisors answered the survey on quality supervision. Of these, 21.2% supervisors were identified as Indigenous people (including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islanders) and 78.8% were non-Indigenous people. A screening question in our survey asked participants whether they had supervised an Indigenous HDR student before to proceed with the next questions. The results showed that 100% supervisors (n = 33) who participated in this research had experience in supervising Indigenous HDR students.

The qualifications and experiences of supervisors are important factors in supervising HDR students. The highest qualifications of the supervisors who participated in this survey were doctoral degrees. Of the 33 supervisors, only one possessed a master’s degree (3%); 32 participants (97%) possessed a PhD/EdD as their highest qualification. In response to the question about experiences in supervising HDR students, over half of those surveyed (53.1%—17 participants) reported that they had more than 10 years’ experience in supervision, 25% (8 participants) had 5–9 years, 15.6% (5 participants) had 1–3 years and only 6.3% (2 participants) had less than one year of experience in the supervision role.

Formal training for researchers in the supervision role is critical for supporting HDR students; also, the experience of supervising Indigenous HDR students was a key point of this study. Of the 33 supervisors who participated in this study, 26 (78.6%) had attended formal training for supervisors and 7 (21.7%) had never attended formal training for supervisors. When asked whether they were currently supervising any Indigenous HDR students, most of the supervisors (93.9%—31 participants) reported that they currently had Indigenous HDR student(s) under their supervision; only two supervisors (6.1%) had previously supervised an Indigenous HDR student, but were not at the present time. We also asked whether the participants had ever supervised a HDR student who was not in their discipline. Interestingly, the results showed that 45.5% (15 participants) said ‘yes’ and 54.6% (18 participants) said ‘no’ to this question.

Supervisors’ availability for meetings and consultations with students is vital in supervision and critical for working with HDR students. Respondents were asked to indicate the frequency of meeting with students; 21.2% (7 participants) reported that they met with students once a week, 24.2% (8 participants) met once per fortnight, 30.3% (10 participants) met once a month, and 24.2% (8 participants) said that they met with students when needed. In this survey, we also asked participants about the time they spent on supervising an Indigenous HDR student and a non-Indigenous HDR student; the majority of participants (66.8%—22 participants) commented that they spent about the same time for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous students. While 21.2% (7 participants) reported that Indigenous HDR students needed more supervision time than non-Indigenous students, only 12.1% (4 participants) indicated an opposite result that Indigenous HDR students needed less supervision time than non-Indigenous cohorts.

6.3.2 Quality Supervision from Supervisors’ Perspectives

Quality supervision plays a vital role in supporting HDR students’ success in completing their research degree. This research study focused on the quality supervision from the perspectives of supervisors of Indigenous HDR students. We found that there are a wide range of factors that contribute to quality supervision, including characteristics of the supervisors, supervisors’ expertise and experience, quality feedback and advice, the communication and collaboration with students, the student–supervisor relationship, and most of all was the support for Indigenous HDR students holistically.

6.3.2.1 Characteristics of Good Supervisors

Being flexible if students need more time but rescheduling so that they don’t fall of the radar (OSL3_Supervisor27).

A common view among participants about the characteristics of good supervisors was understanding and flexible. As OSL3_Supervisor27 stated above, they [supervisors] are usually flexible in working with students since they also understand that research students have to deal with a range of issues, including family and community responsibilities, work duties and research-related issues. Therefore, “being flexible when students encountered personal and professional challenges” (OLS3_Supervisor12) is a characteristic of supervisors of HDR students, particularly Indigenous HDR students. Another participant commented that [good supervisors] are “supervisors [who] know why and try to understand students’ personal and professional situations and help the students to resolve any issue arisen” (OLS3_Supervisor14). Also, to fully understand students, it is critical for supervisors “to listen and really hear what is being asked” (OLS3_Supervisor25) and “listen to what students needs and concerns”, as OLS3_Supervisor10 added.

6.3.2.2 Expertise, Experienced and Knowledgeable

Supervisors’ expertise in the disciplines, experiences and knowledge is considered to be key factors of good supervision. A recurrent theme in the open-ended responses was a sense among participants that quality supervision comprises supervisors who are knowledgeable, highly experienced and expert in their research area. For instance, a participant said, “expertise in the discipline on the part of the supervisor. Ability to ask pointed questions of students to move them towards a quality research outcome” (OLS3_Supervisor16). Another participant commented:

[Good supervisors] know the field, have scholarship in the field, have methodological expertise that can support the student, have good ethical understanding and demonstrate it, know of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ protocols, understand the importance of ‘talking up’ the research with more than just the student (i.e. their community group, employers, especially if they work in the university setting), working with external supervisor partners to make up the expertise that non-Indigenous supervisor don’t have (OLS3_Supervisor27).

For supervisors of Indigenous HDR students, knowledge of Indigenous communities and ethical understanding is highly recommended, as Supervisor27 indicated above. Throughout the responses in our data concerning quality supervision, ‘knowledge’, ‘expertise’ and ‘experience’, particularly for Indigenous issues and topics, were repeated multiple times. The following comment illustrates the importance of supervisors’ experience:

Being able to guide and facilitate the student’s research. Setting reasonable deadlines and goals. Being able to discuss issues of content (theory, design, results) and process (doing research, doing a PhD) in a meaningful and helpful way (OLS3_Supervisor20).

Another participant stated that experienced supervisors should be able to anticipate examiners’ critiques so that they can prepare their HDR students well for the submission of their theses. In particular, one said, “anticipating examiner critique so that the submitted document is as ‘bullet-proof’ as possible” (OLS_Supervisor12). The same supervisor also pointed out, “helping the student identify the ‘ah ha’ moment in which they will see the importance of their work”. It is apparent that these examples describe the traits of experienced supervisors. However, this study also found a clear message from participants in a supervisory team that inexperienced supervisors who lack the relevant knowledge and expertise should not be placed in the team. A respondent stated:

Many supervisors – including Indigenous supervisors – have very limited understanding of critical Indigenous research methodologies. Indigenous supervisors are placed on HDR supervisory teams without necessary skills and simply to have an Indigenous person on the panel and Indigenous potential supervisors feel obliged to do so (OLS3_Supervisor30).

In the same vein, another participant added:

It varies greatly. Many supervisors do not have training in supervision, nor do they seek it out. What is concerning is that non-Indigenous and some Indigenous supervisors see that they can supervise Indigenous students in Indigenous methodology and Indigenous methods even when they have no experience in this or their own research, including their PhDs have not included this at all … There are also people who have not grown up as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander people or who may have only just learned about their identity in the last few years who think they know about Indigenous knowledge and Indigenous research, Indigenous methodology, Indigenous methods, Indigenous experiences and much, much more. In reality their knowledge is relatively new, just like that of non-Indigenous people. It irks me that people can just be Aboriginal in 1–5 or even 10 years and suddenly they know everything, sit on committees, boards and supervise other Aboriginal people (OLS3_Supervisor30).

6.3.2.3 Quality Feedback and Advice

In supervising HDR students, supervisors’ feedback is extremely critical. A word frequency query was run in NVivo software and found that the word ‘feedback’ was repeated 28 times throughout our data. From the perspective of supervisors, participants indicated the importance of quality feedback in supervision: “Being able to provide quality feedback. Being able to judge the merit of the research and how it will be received by markers” (OLS3_Supervisor20).

“Frequent and timely feedback, able to provide quality feedback, realistic and honest feedback to written work, available at short notice if in a crisis but remain positive, constructive feedback” were other comments recorded in our survey results when we asked participants about quality supervision. Furthermore, a respondent also said: “My job is to give advice where necessary but to not crowd the person so they can fly” (OLS3_Supervisor25).

Obviously, students expect a lot of advice from their supervisors; hence, providing good quality advice strongly influences students’ research journey and success. For example, a participant illustrated this point: “My students expect from me a lot of advice on processes, publications, where to find resources, how to manage them, and keeping track of their deadlines for them” (OLS3_Supervisor24).

6.3.2.4 Collaboration and Communication

“Successful and effective supervision requires equal commitment and effort by student and supervisor. This can be hard to achieve” (OLS3_Supervisor24). Some felt that the HDR students’ thesis is an individual research project that is assumed to be the responsibility of HDR students only, while our research found that supervisors of HDR students believed that there is an equal commitment and effort by supervisors and students. On that basis, OLS3_Supervisor8 reported that they were working for a common goal. Supervisors of HDR students also wanted to “ensure that HDR students are part of the whole team and not put somewhere separate to the research team” (OLS3_Supervisor29).

Communication is key in successful quality supervision. It was suggested that “setting up a communications process which allows an open and respectful exchange of views on how well goals are being met on both sides” (OLS3_Supervisor24).

It was apparent that communication between supervisors and students requires a respectful exchange of views from both sides. In addition, “constant communication/quick turnaround, regular communication and support, clear communication of objectives, availability and openness, being responsive in communication” were also found in the quality supervision from the perspectives of supervisors.

6.3.2.5 Supervisor–Student Relationship

In my view it is important to have a genuine rapport between the supervisor and the student and to be interested and concerned both for their well-being, their studies and their future plans. Also to be truthful and honest is key to working together (OLS3_Supervisor8).

Building a good rapport is also key in the supervisor–student relationship. As OLS3_Supervisor8 stated above, it is not only students who are inspired to build a good relationship with their supervisors, but supervisors of HDR students also believed that genuine rapport is important. In addition, trust and respect in this mutual relationship are highly regarded, as noted by one participant: “A trusting and respectful professional relationship with students” (OLS3_Supervisor29). Another participant added: “A respectful relationship, and open relationship where no issues are avoided” (OLS3_Supervisor31).

Additionally, OLS3_Supervisor5 commented that “trust and rapport are essential to this, as is prior experience in working in Indigenous contexts”. Furthermore, quality supervision in the supervisor–student relationship also involved “creating relationship with them [students] professionally and personally” (OLS3_Supervisor21) and “ideally, the supervisor-student relationship turns into one of peers over the course of the candidacy” (OLS3_Supervisor1).

Furthermore, “a commitment to a long-term intellectually engaged relationship” (OLS_Supervisor11) is highly recommended, and “having a supportive relationship with students that encourages them to strive” (OLS3_Supervisor17) was highlighted in the responses of quality supervision. Talking about the support for Indigenous HDR students, our study found a range of support from the perspective of supervisors, which will be reported in the next section.

6.3.2.6 Supporting Indigenous HDR Students

Building a strong supervisory team to guide Indigenous HDR students to completion is a vital factor contributing to quality supervision. Once the supervision does not meet students’ needs and problems arise, it is the supervisor’s responsibility to make students aware of their right to request a reconfiguration of supervisory team, as OLS3_Supervisor27 reported: “making students aware of their right to (re)configure the supervision if it is not meeting their needs”. This study also found that supervisors of Indigenous HDR students had a desire to bring a qualified Indigenous supervisor on board to co-supervise Indigenous HDR students and support students from Indigenous supervisors’ perspectives. One participant “has tried to bring Indigenous supervisors onto the team where they can support the student” (OLS3_Supervisor27). Although it is not mandatory to include an Indigenous supervisor in the supervisory team for each Indigenous HDR student (see Chap. 7 for more details), involving qualified Indigenous supervisors may better support Indigenous HDR students in their research journey.

Supporting Indigenous HDR students holistically and guiding them to successful completion were found in supervisors’ perspectives. This view was echoed by a participant who said they were “supporting the student to complete a project that they are proud of and meets their goals. Guiding the student to completion and examination in a timely manner” (OLS3_Supervisor12).

Additionally, these participants also mentioned that supervisors’ support would not cease at students’ completion; rather, the supervisors were focused on supporting Indigenous students during the entire process and mentoring for a future career, not just for the degree, but “being a mentor rather than being an authority or absent” (OLS3_Supervisor19). “A highly supportive supervisor would also assist students by creating and maintaining good quality work, enabling high quality work, and ensuring the student has every opportunity to succeed, including the removal of any institutional barriers” (OLS_Supervisor4, 5, 6, 10).

This study also found that supervisors of Indigenous HDR students supported their students by empowering students and challenging them in a supportive and encouraging way to ignite their capabilities and passion for their research project; for instance, a respondent said “supervision that challenges students, holds them to high expectations, but in a supportive and encouraging way, not an overwhelming way” (OLS_Supervisor10). Another respondent added: “Guidance that empowers students to engage with body of knowledge to generate new understanding” (OLS3_Supervisor15).

In our investigation of quality supervision for supporting Indigenous HDR students, we found that supervisors tended to support their students academically, physically, mentally and personally. We also found that students felt safe around supervisors who shared their concerns and interests. The following comments illustrated this perspective:

The students are adequately supported academically, physically, mentally. Students feel safe around the supervisors, can share their concerns, worries, needs and preferences (OLS3_Supervisor14).

Having students feel they can discuss any issues with you and working through personality differences. Having students who are passionate about the topic they are researching (OLS3_Supervisor29).

6.3.3 Good Practices and Concerns in Supervising HDR Students

6.3.3.1 Good Practices

Being flexible, understanding and empathetic. A supervisor is who understands life circumstances that may impact their students and their work and who listens to students’ interests, needs and concerns that are considered good practices of the participants in this study. Being flexible and empathetic to the students’ personal, financial, work-related and study-related situations were also good practices found in this study that are a great support for HDR students; for instance, a respondent said:

Being flexible as the project changed, as creative practice projects often do. Being empathetic to the situation (personal, financial, work, study) that the student is in, which often changes pretty dramatically over the 3 or 4 years of the doctorate (OLS3_Supervisor6).

Another respondent also checked with students about their care responsibilities and other commitments; this respondent stated:

I check with students about care responsibilities, partner commitments etc. This helps us get a picture of building this for their lives, setting up goals that are realistic, planning and making it feel more possible. I find younger people who have less community commitments and who don’t have children need more help with the planning and juggling. Those who are older with these commitments are used to meeting a range of priorities, commitments and obligations (OLS_Supervisor32).

The good practice of ‘understanding’ from the perspectives of supervisors of Indigenous HDR students can be identified in various areas, including understanding students’ circumstances, context and broader life space issues and when students need assistance or space to think and understanding the issues that may impact students in completing their research project.

Supporting and enabling HDR students to succeed. Bringing Indigenous supervisor into the supervisory team is a great support for Indigenous HDR students. The best option is to have an Indigenous supervisor involved; otherwise, an Indigenous critical friend or other informal mechanisms of Indigenous guidance would strongly support Indigenous students culturally. Furthermore, the findings of this study that confirmed good practices in supervision to support Indigenous HDR students could include a range of strategies such as supervisors’ guidance, trainings, feedback, cohort support, expectations and a good supervisor–student relationship.

Providing support and letting students know that they (i.e. supervisors) are here to support them are another good practice that participants in this study have followed. This can be done by regular checking in with students to keep them on track, engage in their research project and talk them through any blockages to find work arounds. In addition, supervisors did not practise micro-managing students’ project progress, but encouraged students’ independence and skill development. Supervisors were also able to direct students to appropriate support services or courses. For instance, a participant stated:

I try to check in with my students regularly to let them know I am here to support them. I know that some students retreat and hide when they are feeling overwhelmed or like, they are not doing well, and I try to take that stigma away for them, so they know they can talk to me if they are struggling (OLS3_Supervisor10).

Another respondent stated:

Providing guidance when necessary and encouraging independence, increasing the independence over time. Encouraging learning (via workshops, training) to improve skill sets. Showing compassion and care when needed. Looking out for opportunities for student development and knowing when to refer on (OLS3_Supervisor13).

According to a participant who had more than 10 years of experience in the role of a supervisor and was currently supervising four HDR students, cohort support is a good practice this participant has followed because that “cohort of students going through the process together, also making sure that they [HDR students] support each other” are opportunities HDR students learn from their cohorts (OLS3_Supervisor23).

Enabling students to succeed in completing their research project requires supervisors to provide critical and timely feedback for their students. Eight out of 33 participants in this study said constant feedback on students’ written work was one of the good practices in supervision; for example, a respondent stated “constant feedback on results to bring them to high level of quality research” (OLS3_Supervisor16). Another respondent added: “I provide instant feedback on written material and meet with students to discuss the feedback” to help with “practical matters as they arise, help with writing by commenting on material rather than setting up examples” (OLS3_Supervisor30, 31). However, “focusing on positives and how work can be improved to give students confidence in their abilities” is another feedback strategy that OLS_Supervisor17 has followed. To enable students’ success, a respondent said:

I think supervisors need to be creative in finding ways of enabling a candidature and making the experience of the student a positive one. I think supervisors need to be proactive in a respectful way to enable the student to succeed (OLS3_Supervisor4).

In this research, we also found that discussing supervisors’ expectations with HDR students at the beginning of their research journey is an effective strategy of cooperation for a long-term relationship. Clear expectations were also found to be a good practice in supporting Indigenous HDR students. The term ‘clear expectation’ was repeated multiple times in this survey’s responses. Specifically, a respondent stated “setting out clear expectation for both student and supervisor” had been practised (OLS3_Supervisor21). Also, OLS3_Supervisor26 added: “I like to chat early about expectations, the fact that I’ve got limits and will stuff up, and talk about ways we can raise and hopefully address stresses or conflicts”. In addition to the findings about the clear expectations at the beginning of the research journey, the findings on what supervisors expect from their HDR students will be the focus on further research.

In investigating good practices in supervision that the research participants had followed, the study found that building a reciprocal and respectful relationship between supervisors and students was one in which both supervisors and students bring knowledge and expertise into the supervision space. A participant indicated “the joy of learning new knowledge with students who become experts in their field” (OLS3_Supervisor15). In one case, the participant thought that they did not believe in the student–supervisor relationship, rather they usually learned from each other. Another participant stated that “if they [HDR students] found the supervisor-student relationship isn’t helping. I [supervisor] will work with them to find other options” (OLS3_Supervisor26).

Overall, good practices in supervision were found in providing guidance, encouraging students in training for skill development, encouraging cohort support, providing timely feedback, setting up clear expectations and building a respectful supervisor–student relationship. Other good practices were also found in the ways supervisors communicated and cooperated with students to achieve their common goal, which will be reported in the next section.

Communication and cooperation with students. Communication is key in building a good rapport in the supervisor–student relationship and is also key in effective cooperation with students who are working on a project as a team. Communication and cooperation with students regarding frequency of their meetings and time issues were good practices found in this study.

In many cases, participants reported that they were very responsive to students either via emails or phone calls. Several respondents said “students could contact them any time via emails or phone calls and messages as they tried to share up-to-date information with students” (OLS3_Supervisor14). Another respondent also “put students onto custom email lists to get the university announcements and insider information”. Particularly, an Indigenous supervisor said “Whanaungatanga, quick response to students, random phone calls outside scheduled supervision to check-in, tautoko – turning up when they are presenting on their work” was their communication style with students (OLS3_Supervisor28). In discussing cooperation with students, one respondent said:

I work with the student to ‘draw’ the various part of the project on a diagram and make connections. I find that visualising a project, or at least the methodology section, helps to clarify the mind and makes the writing flow (OLS3_Supervisor12).

Other examples of supervisor–student cooperation to work as a team and target a common goal of completing their research project successfully were noted: “students were also treated as integral members of the whole team” and “reading a shared library on Slack or Google Drive, sharing exemplars”. Spending time with students, setting timeframes for students and working towards time issues such as milestone submissions and publications were also critical factors in HDR students’ research project. However, the most important thing was giving students time to work on their project and being flexible when students needed more time on it. For example, one respondent reported:

I set timeframes, I work with students in setting out the timelines to monthly and weekly goals and then even what an average day might look like. This is important in the beginning when they are just getting started and might be unsure. We work together in this process, and put in things like fitness time, picking up kids if they have kids, birthday parties, etc., etc. We look at what community committees and community boards they are on, and how many meetings they can miss a year with an apology and look at being an apology around confirmation time etc. This helps minimise stress at peak times (OLS3_Supervisor32).

As reported in the demographic questions section above, the frequency of meetings between supervisors and students could vary depending on students’ needs and the agreement between supervisors and students. The findings in this section also revealed several tips and ‘rules’ in their meetings. In one case, a respondent said “setting up regular meeting time is the key, and don’t cancel the meeting without 24-hour notice”. Before a meeting, one respondent usually required students of “work submission for review at least three days in advance”. These were task-oriented meetings, and after the meeting, the respondent said that the students were required to email an overview of what had been discussed and a timeline for their next meeting. Another participant stated: “setting feasible meeting time and making sure that other university work does not get in the way of those dates” (OLS3_Supervisor12).

Overall, communication and cooperation with students as a team are practices followed by participants in this study. The communication and cooperation approach revealed effective working styles that have been employed in the supervisor–student relationship. Also, regular meetings to support students in a timely way were highlighted in this finding.

6.3.3.2 Concerns

There were three main issues raised by supervisors concerning their supervision of Indigenous HDR students. The findings of this study found: (1) issues relating to institutions; (2) issues relating to HDR students; (3) issues relating to supervisors.

Issues relating to institutions. When the question “What are your concerns when supervising HDR students?” was put to supervisors of Indigenous HDR students, the responses highlighted the issue of racism and cultural safety in Australian institutions. Several respondents shared the view that Indigenous HDR students have tolerated racism from their peers, academics, institutions and in disciplinary scholarship. The OLS3_Supervisor25 believed that Australian institutions were not culturally safe for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students and that this was more evident at the HDR level.

Another respondent shared a concern that they might not be effective in fighting the racism issue when “all HDR students are entering a neoliberal institution and precarious economy”. This respondent also concerned “the balance between preparing, warning students for the institution and respecting for experiences politics which is tricky to strike sometimes” (OLS3_Supervisor26).

Furthermore, OLS3_Supervisor22 believed that “the academy is not well suited to Indigenist research, making it challenging for Indigenous students” and suggested that the “institution needs to have zero tolerance to racism and better awareness among non-Indigenous scholars about Indigenous scholarship”.

Additionally, one participant raised attention to the lack support from the Graduate Research Office due to their lack of understanding about the hardship in recruiting Indigenous students in HDR programs. This respondent also claimed their timelines were unrealistic and inflexible. Respondents in this study were also concerned about the insufficient financial support for Indigenous HDR students, which may cause students to withdraw from their HDR programs.

Issues relating to HDR students. Students’ mental health and well-being were one of the concerns of the respondents. Pursuing a research degree is a long journey with many up and down feelings and unexpected events that might happen in the students’ lives. For instance, a participant said:

Because it’s a long journey and because usually many unintended events happen in the students’ lives, some Indigenous HDR students struggle to continue even though they are genuinely interested to continue their studies. So, my main concern is whether the students will actually continue or not (OLS3_Supervisor14).

Other participants expressed their concerns about the mental health of students and the stress of being afraid of failure to complete, “especially not being sufficiently aware of their problems” (OLS3_Supervisor31). For Indigenous HDR students, the burden of family and community responsibilities can affect their study focus and cause poor health and mental issue, which was also a concern of respondents in this study. One participant reported their concern was whether students would be able to complete a task, “especially if they have additional personal demands such as poor health or looking after relatives/community commitments” (OLS3_Supervisor20). Another respondent commented “the students’ stress levels and ability to complete their work in a timely fashion to a sufficient standard” (OLS_Supervisor17) was a concern, “especially when they have to deal with the inevitable stress level HDR students experience, particularly with challenging timelines” (OLS3_Supervisor29). Commenting on the stress level and mental health issue of HDR students, another participant said: “mental health of the students as the project creates unique stress in students’ life” (OLS3_Supervisor11). Generally, mental health, well-being and stress levels were concerns when supervising HDR students, especially Indigenous HDR students.

“How to keep students on track? How to keep students motivated and interested in the work?” were additional concerns of supervisors. Understanding that the research study is a long learning journey, “whilst the excitement at the initial stages may be contagious, the likelihood of students losing interest is normal. How do we keep students on task and on time?” OLS3_Supervisor15 said. Another said: “From time to time students have difficulty usually related to competing demands on their time which affects progress and can adversely influence work quality” (OLS3_Supervisor18). Furthermore, “the workload model for research supervision is insufficient to help students, so the supervisors get frazzled or don’t give enough support for their students” (OLS3_Supervisor27). Expressing a concern when students get behind, this respondent said:

I think that non-Indigenous supervisors (and I am one) are afraid to ask what is going on when a student gets behind. They [supervisors] need to keep students on track – that’s their job … finding out what supports are best to keep them [students] on track. Not being part of a student’s community means that there are many things that supervisors are unaware of and they have to work hard to earn the trust and to get into the loop (OLS3_Supervisor27).

However, in contrast to the concerns of supervisors who try to keep students on track, some students do not put their whole heart into their research project, but may treat it as something they do when they have more time and then rush through it at the end. One respondent said:

Students who treat it [thesis] half-hearted despite saying it’s for community and rushing it. It can cause issues in that the work is not as good as it could have been and it has gone too quickly for community too. Sometimes this will come back on the HDR student (OLS3_Supervisor32).

Issues relating to supervisors of HDR students. There were two issues relating to supervisors of Indigenous HDR students that were of concern, including (1) supervisory expertise and (2) alignment with students’ expectation.

In many cases, the respondents revealed that they were worried if they were out of depth in relation to theoretical aspects as they wanted to ensure that “students have the breadth of their expertise” (OLS3_Supervisor6). This study also found in the responses that participants were concerned whether “the advice they gave was the best advice”, and also, “whether they [supervisors] are doing the good enough job? Whether students feel they are approachable and students can discuss concerns with them [supervisors]” (OLS3_Supervisor23).

In addition to the concern about the depth of expertise to ensure students are being provided with the best supervisory expertise and advice, the participants in this study also reported a concern regarding the alignment with students’ expectations. When asked about their concerns when supervising HDR students, one respondent said: “Not being aligned with them [students] in term of expectations. Not being able to help them out properly with ideas” (OLS3_Supervisor19).

Generally, the concerns in supervision were reported in three main issues relating to institutions, HDR students and supervisors of HDR students. In the next section, the findings of this study will report on the professional development for supervisors of Indigenous HDR students.

6.3.4 Professional Development for Supervisors of Indigenous HDR Students

Turning now to the findings of professional development for supervisors of Indigenous students, this section reports the following demands for professional development that will support academic researchers when supervising Indigenous HDR students: (1) professional development in cultural awareness, cultural safety and cultural knowledge training; (2) professional development in HDR supervision and Indigenous research methodology training; (3) professional development in identifying racism and dealing with racism training.

To investigate the demands of professional development to support supervisors in the supervisory role, we asked whether supervisors of Indigenous HDR students required any professional development. The results showed that supervisors of Indigenous HDR students highly valued the importance of cultural awareness, cultural safety and cultural knowledge training. While one respondent said “cultural awareness training is essential”, other respondents added:

It would be good to learn more about dynamics of relationships where one person (supervisor) is more in a position of power. How can we lead and guide but still honour cultural mores, be respectful etc.? I guess that’s more cultural training (OLS3_Supervisor10)?

My practices have been informed by informal conversations with Indigenous colleagues and the families of Indigenous students. I think that there could be some assistance with understanding ways in which Indigenous cultures structure knowledge so that western expectations are not unnecessarily placed on students (OLS3_Supervisor12).

Cultural understanding. Understanding about Indigenous Ways of Working. Having a clear understanding of the true Australian history. The supervisor needs to be flexible and should be able to work with the students appropriate to their situation. Cross-cultural understanding, understanding about ‘cultural safety’ is critical. Supervisors need to understand how their behaviour can impact on students’ progress (OLS3_Supervisor14).

The participants in this study strongly believed that ‘cultural awareness’ training is always important in the academy. It would be a great resource for non-Indigenous supervisors and/or supervisors without Indigenous background to learn more “knowledge on culture and perceptions to be able to mentor students better” (OLS3_Supervisor19). Besides, it is critical for Indigenous HDR students to be culturally safe, and including an Indigenous co-supervisor into the supervisory team was suggested as a solution to support Indigenous HDR students. A participant said: “I would love them [students] to have an Indigenous supervisor available to them” (OLS3_Supervisor28). Another participant expressed their perspective on professional development:

I think all supervisors of Indigenous students should have very careful training; including exposure to basic cultural awareness training, cultural competence training and more intensive training about cultural safety. I think they should be able to demonstrate an understanding of Indigenous Australian epistemology and ontology and understand their own power and privilege as well as their own positionality (OLS3_Supervisor25).

Indeed, supervising Indigenous HDR students requires supervisors’ understanding of students’ cultural background, understanding of socio-historical landscape to work with Indigenous HDR students and understanding of the needs of HDR students and their motivations for engaging in higher degree. Hence, HDR supervision training is critical for preparing supervisors to do their job well; for instance, one respondent said:

I do think supervisors require professional development in relation to supervising Indigenous students. Most fundamentally they need other ways to think beyond the dominant deficit discourse of ‘needy’ students. Part of this is about ensuring supervisors have an understanding of the sociohistorical landscape of their own discipline. This would not only help in supervising Indigenous students, but also help in a broader quest to decolonize academia (OLS3_Supervisor5).

Another respondent stated:

Supervisors need to learn how to be truly reflective and reflexive in relation to the types of activities that we do as supervisors. While supervisors might have training and learning from other areas of education, it’s important that those capabilities are built upon and developed for the particularity of supervision (OLS3_Supervisor4).

While the Indigenous Research Centre has supervisor training workshops, several participants commented that networking opportunities with other supervisors of Indigenous HDR candidates across faculties or meeting with other Indigenous scholars and students to talk about Indigenous research methodologies (OLS3_Supervisor22, 27) were also a part of professional development. In addition, supervisors of Indigenous HDR students should attend Indigenous research methodologies training to understand the protocols for conducting Indigenous research, including Indigenous worldviews and decolonising methodologies (OLS3_Supervisor15). Furthermore, OLS3_Supervisor27 also believed that non-Indigenous supervisors could engage with Indigenous scholarship in a more formal way. Sharing the same view about training for non-Indigenous supervisors, a respondent said: “I would expect that non-Indigenous supervisors of Indigenous HDR students that are undertaking Indigenous research or choosing to operationalise Indigenous methodologies should be provided with professional development to understand critical Indigenous methodologies” (OLS3_Supervisor30). An informant in this study also revealed that learning about Indigenous perspectives, successful approaches to supervision and respect for Indigenous ways of doing and being were important for their professional development.

While racism is still prevalent in Australian higher education and Indigenous HDR students continue to tolerate it, it is important for supervisors of Indigenous HDR students to identify racism and to have the skills and experience to deal with it. Therefore, professional development and training in identifying racism and dealing with racism were reported to be essential. A respondent said: “Training in identifying racism in universities (structural and functional, not implicit bias nonsense) … Procedures for dealing with racism at the university, appeal processes at Graduate School/faculty level” (OLS3_Supervisor26). Additionally, decolonisation and/or antiracism training were found to be recommended in the responses of this study when asked about professional development required for supervisors of Indigenous HDR students.

Overall, the findings of this study highlighted three main issues that require professional development for supervisors: cultural awareness, cultural safety and cultural knowledge training; professional development in HDR supervision and Indigenous research methodology training and professional development in identifying racism and dealing with racism training.

Together, these results provide an important insight into the needs and experiences of supervisors of Indigenous HDR students. This section has presented results from demographic questions and findings about quality supervision from the perspectives of supervisors, as well as good practices and concerns in supervision and professional development required for supervisors of Indigenous HDR. The next section will discuss these results.

6.4 Discussion

This study explored the needs and experiences of supervisors of Indigenous HDR students with an aim to better support Indigenous HDR students and enable them to succeed in completing their research degree project. Drawing from the findings of this study, this section discusses what supervisors of Indigenous HDR students provide (experiences) and what supervisors of Indigenous HDR students need (needs) to provide an understanding about supervisors’ perspectives in supervision.

6.4.1 Supervisors of Indigenous HDR Students’ Experiences: Quality Supervision

Prior studies have noted the importance of quality supervision in enabling Indigenous HDR students to succeed (Behrendt et al., 2012; Hutchings et al., 2019; Laycock et al., 2009; Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020; Trudgett, 2011, 2013, 2014). The findings of this study highlighted the importance of supervisors’ disciplinary expertise, experience and knowledge as a vital factor in quality supervision. It is even more critical to involve a qualified Indigenous supervisor in the supervisory team. These findings are in line with Coopes (2007) and Trudgett’s (2011) suggestions “to involve Indigenous community member and elders in the supervision process and incorporate their expertise” (p. 395).

However, as presented in the demographic questions results and as reported by Grant and McKinley (2011), when Indigenous supervisors are asked to work outside their discipline and/or areas of expertise to supervise Indigenous students, there is the perception that Indigenous students need to be supervised by Indigenous peoples, but we would argue that is a myth (see Chap. 7 for more detail). Indigenous students may need support and mentoring from Indigenous people in their community such as from Elders. Here at QUT, the Carumba Institute has an Indigenous Postgraduate Program Officer to provide student support, but not necessarily supervision. The literature seems to support this view that involving an Indigenous supervisor in the supervisory team to act as a cultural advisor and/or associate supervisor is critical for Indigenous HDR students (Anderson et al., 2021; Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020; Trudgett, 2011; see Chaps. 2 and 5). The supervisors’ desire to include Indigenous members or elders from the community into the supervisory team is also aligned with Indigenous HDR students’ wish to have at least an Indigenous associate supervisor to provide advice and support when needed. Other than supporting Indigenous HDR students culturally, a supervisor’s disciplinary expertise is meant to support students to become effective researchers in the academy, and any supervisor should be able to do this well.

Providing quality feedback and advice and building a good rapport in the relationship with HDR students were recorded in quality supervision from the perspectives of supervisors. These findings are consistent with Trudgett’s (2014) framework that “providing constructive criticism that is open and honest is academic skill-based support from supervisor and prioritize the relationship with the student (develop rapport) is personal reflection of supervisor” (p. 1046). Furthermore, it is interesting to find the agreement regarding the quality of supervision from the perspectives of supervisors and the perspectives of Indigenous HDR students. As stated in Chap. 1, our study explored the needs and experiences of Indigenous HDR students (see Chap. 5) and the needs and experiences of supervisors of Indigenous HDR students. It is critical to provide an understanding of the same issue from both stakeholders’ perspectives. Thanks to this finding, the relationship between Indigenous HDR students and their supervisors might be developed in a positive way. Their cooperation might be more productive and effective for working together as a team for a common goal of completing the research program. Both supervisors and Indigenous HDR students may be more flexible and empathetic in their working relationship when they understand more about students’ perspectives and vice versa.

The results of this study showed that quality supervision is also comprised of holistic support for Indigenous HDR students to empower and challenge them in an encouraging way. This is not only about supporting Indigenous HDR students to succeed in completing their research degree, but also to support students personally, physically and mentally during their candidature, as well as in their future academic career. This finding is consistent with the observation that “Indigenous HDR students need a lot of support from their supervisors. Beside the academic support, Indigenous HDR students also expect supervisors’ support for their mental health and well-being during their candidature” (Anderson et al., 2021, p. 8). A possible explanation for this finding may be based on the relationship between supervisors and their students. A relationship is built on trust and reciprocal respect. Both supervisors and students have a certain understanding about their counterpart in this relationship. In the role of supervisor, participants in this study understood the students’ need for being supported more than anyone. Thus, providing support for Indigenous HDR students holistically to enable their success was not a surprising finding in this study.

6.4.2 Supervisors of Indigenous HDR Students’ Needs: Professional Development

The results of this study indicated that supervisors of Indigenous HDR students required cultural awareness, cultural safety and cultural knowledge training to best support their Indigenous HDR students. It is believed that being a supervisor of Indigenous HDR students, an understanding of students’ background, cultures, political, socio-historical and economy is critical in guiding Indigenous HDR students. This finding is in agreement with those obtained by Wilson (2017) that “researchers and supervisors of student research have an ethical responsibility to ensure that the research they undertake is (a) beneficial to the Indigenous community and (b) that the knowledge they produce reflects accurately local Indigenous worldview” (p. 262). This finding also confirms Trudgett’s (2011, 2014) recommendations about the mandatory cultural awareness training for academics in Australian higher education. This result might be explained by the fact that non-Indigenous and Indigenous supervisors with limited cultural knowledge background experienced challenges and understood their restriction in cultural knowledge when supervising Indigenous HDR students. Therefore, a professional development in cultural awareness, cultural safety and knowledge training is a great support for their supervisory role and responsibilities.

An important finding of this study indicated that supervisors of Indigenous HDR students had concerns about the prevalence of racism in Australian higher education. Showing a concern about racism issues and challenges, Indigenous students have experienced stimulated supervisors’ interest in professional development such as workshops and training to identify racism and develop skills to deal with racism issues. In accordance with the present results, previous studies (Pechenkina et al., 2011; Trudgett, 2009) have demonstrated that the experience of HDR candidates “still remains an isolating experience associated with feelings of exclusion from the mainstream” (p. 16). Several reports (Behrendt et al., 2012; Bradley et al., 2008) have shown that Indigenous Australians, including Indigenous staff and HDR students, experienced racism and a high level of social exclusion. Therefore, Trudgett (2009) suggested that “in order to combat such isolation, social interaction should be encouraged and supported wherever possible” (p. 16). The interest in professional development in identifying and dealing with racism by supervisors of Indigenous HDR students further supports Trudgett’s proposal. Overall, supervisors of Indigenous HDR students desired to better prepare themselves to best support their students.

6.5 Summary

This study was designed to investigate the needs and experiences of supervisors of Indigenous HDR students to enable their students to succeed in Australian higher education. This chapter has presented the study’s findings about quality supervision from the perspectives of supervisors and revealed the good practices and concerns of supervisors when supervising Indigenous HDR students. In order to better support their students, the importance of professional development for supervisors in cultural awareness, cultural safety and cultural knowledge was highlighted. Also, identifying racism and skills in dealing with racism are critical skills for supervisors. To sum up, our results showed agreement regarding quality supervision from supervisors and Indigenous HDR students’ perspectives in the following areas: (1) the understanding and flexible characteristics of supervisors; (2) supervisors’ expertise and experience; (3) quality feedback; (4) collaboration with students as a team; (5) building a respectful supervisor–student relationship; (6) supporting Indigenous HDR students personally, physically, mentally and academically.

Notwithstanding the relatively limited sample (33 participants), this work offers valuable insights into understanding the needs and experiences of supervisors of Indigenous HDR students. It is suggested that the study should be repeated with bigger sample size and implemented in a cross-cultural context. An international higher education context would provide a better understanding of the needs and experiences of supervisors internationally. It would also be interesting to have a comparison of how Indigenous HDR students are supported in different countries such as Australia and New Zealand, Canada, the United States and Pacific Oceania countries.