Keywords

5.1 Introduction

Studies over the past decade have identified the low participation rates of Indigenous higher degree by research (HDR) students in higher education. Behrendt et al. (2012) outlined a number of barriers influencing Indigenous HDR students’ completion rates, including the need for better supervision. The literature on Indigenous HDR students has tended to focus primarily on culturally appropriate aspects of supervision rather than on the academic skills needed to accomplish a research degree (Barney, 2013; Moodie et al., 2018; Trudgett, 2008).

The participation and retention of Indigenous students have revealed the fact that Indigenous students are largely under-represented in HDR programs in Australia (Barney, 2013; Behrendt et al., 2012). While quality supervision plays a critical role in supporting Indigenous HDR students and enabling them to succeed, there are few studies investigating the association between quality supervision and Indigenous HDR students’ needs and practical experiences. Laycock et al. (2009) and Trudgett (2011, 2013, 2014) have provided practical guides for supervisors to support Indigenous students, including developing and maintaining strong and trusting relationships, and supervisors having respect for students. Recently, Hutchings et al. (2019) suggested training for supervisors in Indigenous research methodologies, and the ethics of working with Indigenous people and communities should be introduced.

5.2 Background

The Australian Government’s Department of Education and Training compiles data on the enrolment and employment of HDR students and staff, respectively, at Australian universities. In 2020, Moreton-Robinson et al. completed a commissioned report for the Department of Education and Training. This report on Indigenous success in HDR (see Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020) utilised the Department of Education and Training’s data to illustrate and discuss the significant imbalance in the number of Indigenous and non-Indigenous HDR students and staff in Australian academies. In 2017, the data from the Department of Education and Training revealed that there were 592 Indigenous Australians enrolled in a research degree and there had been 60 completions. The number of Indigenous HDR students enrolling or commencing and completing their degrees throughout the years is not equal. We know from the existing data that completion rates continue to be extremely low compared to the number of enrolments and commencements over the preceding years. Although the number of Indigenous students enrolled in a research degree has gradually increased, the number of students who actually commenced their study and completed study fluctuated in this period. For instance, in 2006, there were 357 Indigenous students enrolled in a HDR program, but only 86 (24.1%) Indigenous students actually began their research journey, and only 33 (9.24%) Indigenous students completed their degree. This trend continued in the following years from 2007 to 2017. It is interesting that the number of Indigenous HDR students enrolled in a research degree has increased in the recent years from 2014 to 2017. The number of Indigenous students who completed their research study was highest in 2016.

In comparing the number of HDR students in the total domestic population, the number of Indigenous HDR students is alarmingly low. Even in 2016 when the Indigenous HDR students recorded the highest completion rate, it is only approximately 0.9% of the total domestic population of HDR students.

5.3 Quality Supervision

Indigenous HDR students require high-quality supervision in supporting them to achieve their academic goals (Trudgett, 2008). A strong and trusting supervisor–student relationship is recommended, and Trudgett (2008) also suggests that students need to be respected as knowledge holders. Trudgett (2011) argued that Indigenous candidates may have different supervisory needs from non-Indigenous candidates such as supervisors with cultural awareness and knowledge of Indigenous ancestry and history. The Australian Council of Learned Academies’ review of the Australian research and training system states that without adequate Indigenous HDR supervisor training, supervisors may be ill-equipped to acknowledge the merits of Indigenous research methodologies, knowledges and protocols. Thus, quality supervision has been identified as one of the contributing factors that Indigenous students will consider in choosing an institution (Page et al., 2017). Several studies offer practical guides for supervisors of Indigenous research students (e.g. Laycock et al., 2009; Trudgett, 2013, 2014). There are limited number of studies that have focused on the needs and experiences of Indigenous HDR students.

5.4 Supervising Indigenous HDR Students

The impact of supervision on the retention and completion of Indigenous HDR students was investigated by Dunbar et al. (2004) and Laycock et al. (2009). Dunbar et al. (2004) identified that non-Indigenous supervisors might not feel confident in supporting the needs of Indigenous students, which may be different from non-Indigenous students. The authors found that the differences in perspectives and support needs of Indigenous HDR students, Indigenous matters and support and training techniques may disturb and influence the confidence of non-Indigenous supervisors even though they may be experienced research supervisors.

Laycock et al. (2009) indicated the dilemma in incorporating an Indigenous worldview into Western research methodologies and recommended a reciprocal relationship between supervisors and novice researchers to be successful in supporting research activities and drawing on the specialised and complementary expertise of each person. However, these studies failed to discuss whether supervisors’ availability and/or workload impacted their support for Indigenous HDR students.

Harrison et al. (2017) discerned that supervisors’ knowledge and skills have an impact on students’ research development. They emphasised the importance of supervision and recommended that supervisors have an open mind and respect for Indigenous knowledges and ways of doing and respect Indigenous students as knowledge holders. They also focused on supervisors’ academic skills and capability to supervise Indigenous research students in a culturally appropriate and safe way. However, it remains unclear how culturally appropriate supervision contributes to the success of Indigenous research students in higher education and what culturally appropriate supervision actually means.

5.5 Participants

The participants in this research study were Indigenous HDR students from different disciplinary backgrounds and universities across Australia. These participants attended capacity-building workshops facilitated by the National Indigenous Research and Knowledge Network (NIRAKN) and participated in an online survey via the Qualtrics platform.

5.5.1 Data Collection

Data collected for this research focused on the needs and experiences of Indigenous HDR students. Four types of data were obtained, as shown in Table 5.1. For a complete list of the datasets informing this book, refer to Chap. 1.

Table 5.1 Datasets used to inform this chapter
Full size table

The data from the group discussion (dataset 3) was analysed to understand the needs and experiences of Indigenous HDR students. The data obtained from the individual written responses (dataset 4) was analysed to provide an in-depth understanding of Indigenous HDR students’ challenges, experiences of good practices in HDR supervision and suggestions about supervision during their candidature. The individual written responses took 30 min for participants to complete. Data from the online survey that Indigenous HDR students completed (dataset 5) was analysed to understand the needs and experiences of candidates.

5.5.2 Data Analysis on Indigenous HDR Students’ Needs and Experiences of Research Supervision

The study adopted a qualitative approach to obtain an in-depth understanding of the needs and experiences of Indigenous HDR students concerning supervision. The qualitative approach offers an effective way for researchers to achieve a comprehensive overview of the study, including the perceptions of the participants (Miles & Huberman, 1994). A qualitative approach was chosen for its advantages and appropriateness to investigate the needs and experiences of supervision of Indigenous research students. The study also involved identifying what Indigenous HDR students considered to be important factors to enable their success as HDR candidates.

Group discussions were recorded, and these audio files were transcribed by a professional transcription service. The process of data analysis in this study consisted of three phases: Phase 1, data screening for its completion, fitness and to obtain a general sense of the data; Phase 2, coding the data into nodes using NVivo; and Phase 3, interpreting the data by reviewing themes that emerged from the nodes.

NVivo Pro 12 software was used to analyse and code the data. The data was coded by tagging text with codes as a way of indexing for easy retrieval in the coding process. To code the passages of text into nodes, a line-by-line analysis was implemented. Each node was carefully examined to understand the data that was coded against the node.

For the purpose of analysis, several themes were identified from each node and sorted into the categories of each of the different datasets. To begin this process, each node was examined in detail. The next step in this process was to reexamine the categories and identify identical themes that were found in most of the nodes and represented the needs and experiences of Indigenous HDR students of supervision. These categories are discussed next.

5.6 What We Need

The findings in relation to Indigenous HDR students’ needs and experiences are discussed in this section. Two main categories were found in the group discussion and individual interviews, and a third category was found in the online survey: (1) quality supervision, (2) mentoring opportunities and (3) access to research training.

5.6.1 Students Need Quality Supervision

We found that students expect the following attributes of quality supervisors:

  • Sets clear expectations from the beginning

  • Devotes time for meetings and supporting students

  • Fosters respectful relationships

  • Holds discipline and/or methodological expertise.

Relationships between academic supervisors and HDR students can be very complicated, and they may contribute to students exiting early if the relationship encounters challenges. Setting clear expectations and open communication is important for all HDR students. Indigenous HDR students seek to establish these expectations with their supervisors to ensure long-term and cooperative relationships. One participant in a group discussion revealed:

I think another thing that’s really important in a supervisor for me is that they can be upfront about their working style and what they need from you. So, being able to tell you, I [the supervisor] prefer to get an email before you present your writing, or something like that. It’s really important for you to know what your supervisor’s preferred style is but for them to know what your preferred style of working is and somehow meet in the middle (GD_IndigenousHDR).

Another participant also agreed, stating that “she structures communication, we set clear boundaries” (GD_IndigenousHDR). This finding confirms the matching expectation between Indigenous HDR students and supervisors of Indigenous HDR students in setting clear expectations at the beginning of supervisor–student relationship (see Chap. 6 for details). This finding is also in accord with Cardilini et al. (2021) indicating that “expectations of both candidates and supervisors were closely aligned at the beginning of candidature with both groups placing high importance on qualitative attributes such as candidate motivation, enthusiasm, and written communication” (p. 6).

When asked about the quality of supervision, many of the participants in the group discussion and individual written responses were unanimous in the view that regular meetings greatly contribute to the understanding and efficiency in the supervisor–student working relationship. Whether face-to-face meetings or in-person meetings, it is critical for supporting Indigenous HDR students in completing their research projects. One of the participants stated that “[The supervisors] needs to be committed to meetings and provide support in timely manner” (GD_IndigenousHDR). Another participant added that they sought “regular meetings every fortnight or monthly so that the supervisors can provide them feedback and support their study” (GD_IndigenousHDR).

The results of this study also revealed that supervisors’ availability and commitment to support are critical to Indigenous HDR students. In a group discussion, a participant indicated that they required a lot of support. Another respondent added:

I also have support from the [name of the unit] Unit. They listened to me. Before I’d even enrolled in the PhD program, they had – my two potential supervisors had an hour chat with me where I just talked around a table like this with just those guys in a room. They devoted an hour of their time. They’re both really, really busy on projects – where I could just tell them about my project. So, they suggested people I could read. They were thinking about their own projects and where that could fit into that as well and it was just a totally – being listened to I think for me is a really important part of that and written feedback and support. I need to know that I’m in a safe, supportive environment (GD_IndigenousHDR).

More than half of the students (52%) who participated in the group discussion indicated that supervisors’ support was the key factor contributing to the quality of supervision. In response to the question about quality of supervision, one respondent mentioned that they were also seeking support in the research journey and career goal. The findings relating to the Indigenous HDR students’ perspectives of quality supervision involving regular meetings and providing feedback and support matched with supervisors’ perspectives (see Chap. 6). Understanding the needs of HDR students, particularly Indigenous HDR students, supervisors who participated in this study reported that quality critical feedback is one of the strategies they use. The supervisors also reported that they support their students holistically (i.e. culturally, mentally, personally and academically). This finding is also in line with those of previous studies (Barney, 2013; Behrendt et al., 2012; Schofield et al., 2013; Trudgett, 2011, 2014; Trudgett et al., 2016) with regards to the type of support for Indigenous HDR students.

In line with these findings, Trudgett (2008) recommended four types of support to enable Indigenous HDR students to succeed, including quality supervision, financial assistance, the Indigenous department at their institution and the support provided by the candidate’s family and community.

Another Indigenous HDR student added in the individual written response that quality supervision is “when supervisor challenges but supports me as well”.

We also found that Indigenous HDR students sought a respectful relationship with their supervisors in an environment where students could be supported by their supervisors. A participant in a group discussion revealed:

It’s got nothing to do with culture and that stuff. I just need to know that I’m safe and I’m supported and the other thing that was great is they were excited and enthusiastic about your project and make you feel like this is worth doing (GD_IndigenousHDR).

Another participant also agreed with this statement and reported that they need supervisors who are “respectful [and seek] quality over quantity supervisors regarding meetings, uplifting (walk with me in my research journey), providing and/or directing towards tools” (GD_IndigenousHDR).

While Trudgett et al. (2016) mentioned age as a factor influencing supervision success, the current study found supervisors’ expertise play a crucial role in students’ research. When asked about the quality of supervision, the majority of participants in the individual written responses agreed with the statement that they need their supervisors’ expertise and professional experience and knowledge in the disciplines. The words ‘knowledge’ and ‘professional’ are repeated 24 times in the participants’ responses. What is clear from these students’ responses is that supervisors must comply with universities’ standards for supervision and be experts in their disciplines to enable students to succeed in their research journey.

5.6.2 Supervisors with Expertise and Experience

Two broad themes emerged from the analysis of students’ experiences of supervision practices. A variety of perspectives were expressed on the practices of supervisors. The results of this study found both ‘good’ practices and others that students had concerns about.

‘Good’ practices of supervisors included possessing scholarly disciplinary knowledge and/or a good understanding of the HDR process. For example, one participant wanted supervisors who had “knowledge of discipline and ability to guide professionally through HDR process” (OLS1_IndigenousHDR33).

Other good practices identified by Indigenous HDR students were respecting students’ knowledge and cultures, being available and interested in the student’s research and having a reciprocal supervisor–student relationship.

One of the interviewees who commented on respecting students’ knowledge and cultures noted:

I’ve had a non-Indigenous supervisor who is quite open minded and willing to learn from where I was coming from, where my position was and was willing to shift their understanding. So, we had theoretical debates where we were at odds with each other, and it was a very open, collegial kind of conversation (GD_IndigenousHDR).

Another participant in a written response added that “I had a supervisor who accepted my weird ideas and went away to read about it and we discuss” (GD_IndigenousHDR).

These findings may point to a lack of knowledge about Indigenous research methodology held by HDR supervisors. Prior studies (Martin, 2003; Nakata, 1998; Rigney, 2011; Trudgett, 2014; Trudgett et al., 2016) have also argued the importance of Indigenous students’ voices by creating an intellectual space that acknowledges Indigenous students as respected knowledge holders of, for example, a specific Indigenous research methodology. We also note that being Indigenous does not equate with using Indigenous research methodologies (see Chap. 7), nor does every Indigenous HDR student carry Indigenous knowledges that are relevant to their HDR studies.

When asked about good practice of supervisors, several interviewees agreed with the statement that supervisors’ understanding of the HDR process is critical. An Indigenous HDR student stated that their supervisors “need[ed] to have knowledge of the institution and what academia is, the administration, the process of HDR and that sort of stuff” (GD_IndigenousHDR). Another participant believed that supervisors need to:

focus on four elements: (1) Pastoral care for the student (i.e., emotional support); (2) Research support/advice/supervision (i.e., specifically related to the project, advice about conducting thematic analysis); (3) Establishing deadlines and other motivators to enable the research to keep progressing; (4) Critical reflection for both the student and the supervisor (i.e., challenges our assumptions, knowledges and ways of doing) (OLS2_IndigenousHDR1).

Trudgett (2014) emphasised the critical role of regular meetings in supporting students to succeed. Commenting on the availability of supervisors, another Indigenous HDR student reported that they were seeking supervisors who were approachable, engaged and would give feedback on their work.

As mentioned above, Indigenous HDR students considered the supervisors’ availability and interests in students’ research as a primary factor of supervisory quality. For instance, one student said “We don’t meet often because they’re leaders in their field but they make time for me and when they do make the time, even if it is every two and a half months” (GD_IndigenousHDR). Another Indigenous HDR student wrote:

I have a good professional relationship with my supervisors. I like that she is available at any time for me. I can email, text, pick up the phone and call. He will always answer. That flexibility is important to me because I have two young children, and my PhD moves around this (GD_IndigenousHDR).

These responses reflect those of Trudgett (2014), who also found that a strong relationship between supervisors and students is critical to the accomplishment of Indigenous Australian doctoral students. This view was echoed by another Indigenous HDR student who believed that the reciprocal relationship between supervisors and HDR students was a good practice.

I think relationships between supervisors is also important. It’s been important for me. Two of my supervisors, non-Indigenous, they have a pretty good success rate of pushing PhD students through, including Indigenous students. So, they work really well together – good cop, bad cop. So, when we’re in a meeting together, but also behind the scenes – they have critical discussions about my work and about what they should be giving, and that’s been effective, I think (GD_IndigenousHDR).

While many good practices were reported in the individual written responses and shared in group discussion, students had other concerns about supervision practices, including forcing students to conduct studies in the area of supervisors’ interests, supervisors’ lack of disciplinary knowledge and supervision expertise and supervisors’ unavailability to meet and provide feedback for students.

Regarding research conducted in the area of supervisors’ interests, an Indigenous HDR student said “when a primary and secondary supervisor strongly advise you to do a particular research in a way other than your thought – because it would be good for that faculty to have done that study” (GD_IndigenousHDR).

Another participant was also dealing with the same issue and stated that “my ideas are irrelevant and I should follow her [supervisor’s] ideas and do what she does in her practice” (GD_IndigenousHDR).

Participants also mentioned that supervisors’ lack of knowledge of a specific discipline and/or supervision expertise was the main reason for their concerns. In one case, a participant in a group discussion described an unprofessional and unexperienced supervisor in the supervisory team:

That was my point about that they [supervisors] need to know the systems and processes because I had – not really similar situations but I had a supervisor at a previous university that had only just done a master’s and should never have been supervising and didn’t know anything. So, actually being a proper supervisor and knowing that stuff is important (GD_IndigenousHDR).

Inexperienced and unprofessional supervisors were reported to cause problems when they try to direct or lead the research area without any expertise or previous experience and with a demonstrated incapacity in the topic area of the student. Another participant stated that ideal supervisors are:

Supervisors who know and have experienced the content and life experiences of their HDR students. Supervisors who know the administration procedures of their own university. Supervisors who can direct HDR students to the appropriate contact to find the correct information. Supervisors who don’t seem to be ‘winging it’ and learning how to support HDR students as they go (OLS2_IndigenousHDR6).

The most obvious finding to emerge from the analysis is that the supervisors’ unprofessional expertise causes numerous problems and concerns for HDR students. What we can discern from the above comments is that unprofessional expertise strongly influences on building trust and respect in the supervisor–student relationship, concerning students’ sceptical thinking on leading supervisors. Our study confirms that Indigenous HDR students expect their supervisors to have discipline expertise and experience in the academy (see Chap. 6).

5.6.3 Mentoring Opportunities

Indigenous HDR students also mentioned the role they believe their supervisors play in providing mentorship during their candidature.

Quality supervision is to build up the capacity of the student to undertake independent research by providing a supportive, enthusiastic and positive environment. Ideally, the supervisor will be able to provide guidance to benefit the student in areas of methods development, research and data processing in addition to opportunities for leadership, personal and academic growth (OLS2_IndigenousHDR10).

Another student mentioned the important role supervisors play in helping their students navigate the space since they are experienced and have a better idea what opportunities exist.

I just expect guidance and feedback mainly because this is all new to me, and they have done this before and had other students they know what to do. It would be quite difficult I would imagine trying to do a PhD on your own without anyone providing feedback or saying it think you should include this, or do that (OLS2_IndigenousHDR34).

The role of supervisor is thought to include mentorship by sharing the unknown formula of achieving HDR completion.

I expect support, encouragement, knowledge and experience of the academy and institutional processes. I expect this because it should be like a mentor relationship, and also because they are like a ‘teacher’ for the formula of how HDR works (OLS2_IndigenousHDR9).

According to Lindén et al. (2013) “mentoring is supposed to involve more personal, intimate, pastoral relations, besides interaction relevant to the student’s professional socialisation, whereas advising is restricted to questions concerning research tasks” (p. 640). Mentoring programs are independent and separated program from supervision and not regulated at national level, but at faculty level (Lindén et al., 2013).

Knowing how to provide career advice about being an academic was also viewed as valuable. For students seeking a job in academia post their HDR, the role of building a competitive CV during their candidature is important.

Guidance, feedback and a listening ear when I have a challenge in my work. It would be great if they offered advice as to a future career or advice on publishing academic papers, what conferences to attend etc. to further my career (OLS2_IndigenousHDR17).

Another student suggested that supervisors should provide opportunities to their students using their own research programs. However, this suggestion could open up difficult situations if the supervisor role was responsible for both the completion of students’ HDR milestones and employment duties. Instead, supervisors could recommend opportunities they hear about from other academics rather than employing their own student.

I think my supervisors are interested in the topic and more broadly self-determination. Constructive feedback they are encouraging and identify where I need to improve. Promote opportunity with more broadly across the university through their networks. Use their own research accounts to provide me further opportunities (OLS2_IndigenousHDR24).

In addition to mentoring opportunities, Indigenous HDR students also mentioned the importance of having access to research training.

5.6.4 Access to Research Training

Not all HDR students start their research degree directly after completing an undergraduate degree with an honours component. Many Indigenous HDR students mentioned the need for research training during their candidature.

I had a big break between Honours and PhD – on returning for the post-grad degree, there was minimal interrogation of my ability to do the research and the Confirmation process was therefore pretty chaotic. In hindsight, I should have been started in a Masters by Research in order to gain some detailed research skills. I think the excitement of getting an Aboriginal post-grad in the school played a small part in this. Gotta love hindsight … (OLS2_IndigenousHDR19).

Another Indigenous HDR student mentioned the formal research training they completed.

I completed the Professional Certificate in Indigenous Research at the University of Melbourne and helped me greatly in many ways, from explaining and delivering that explanation of my research to others, especially those outside of my field (OLS2_IndigenousHDR22).

This Indigenous HDR student reflected on the capacity-building training they received through the National Indigenous Research and Knowledges Network (NIRAKN; see Chap. 3 for more information about NIRAKN) and the impact it had on them.

In my first year I attended a few NIRAKN events. These were invaluable in exposing me to some of the challenges that lay ahead. Presenting at the ANU Indigenous research symposium was a great experience. This level of critical analysis of my work (by the best) provided me with the motivation to keep going (OLS2_IndigenousHDR27).

Another Indigenous HDR student mentioned how they are actively seeking research training during their candidature that “I have to actively go out and find training but all things related to research methodologies and technologies that expedite research processes are the most helpful” (OLS2_IndigenousHDR30).

The value of research training was captured by another Indigenous HDR student who shared how they can take knowledge away from any training and make it applicable to their circumstances.

I can learn from any training, I can bend it, shape it, deconstruct and reconstruct, but I acknowledge that much research training overlooks Aboriginal research approaches, exiting expertise, practices and aspirations, researching training from Indigenous knowledge systems better suit my needs for development, delivered by Aboriginal researchers for us and our communities (OLS2_IndigenousHDR7).

The need for training on Indigenous research methodologies and research practices was echoed by another Indigenous HDR who was seeking to share their traditional knowledge and practices with other Indigenous HDRs. They highlighted that many of the challenges and/or struggles Indigenous HDRs are wrestling with now existed years ago.

As a prospective Elder in community I have always had a keen interest in Ancestral Intellect. In mainstream education and knowledge is kept to the ‘young’. The ‘young at heart’ like me want to share my learned skills with community members who want to develop proactive interests in research and parallel them with Ancestral Intellect. Our mob think they are learning new things, however a lot of these issues were around back in the days of the Ancestors. We just have forgotten most of it (OLS2_IndigenousHDR26).

The findings about Indigenous HDR students’ needs for accessing research training are consistent with other studies that report research training is essential (Barney, 2016; Behrendt et al., 2012; McGagh et al., 2016; Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020). The importance of offering research training to Indigenous HDRs in both Indigenous approaches and Western approaches to research was requested by many Indigenous HDR candidates.

5.7 Summary

The current study was designed to explore Indigenous HDR students’ needs and experiences to understand what is needed to succeed in their research degree. The study employed a qualitative method using group discussion, individual written responses to collect data and an online survey. Sixty-six Indigenous HDR students in different disciplinary industries from across Australia participated in this research. The study revealed that building a respectful supervisor–student relationship and being supervised by supervisors with the appropriate discipline knowledge are vital for the success of Indigenous HDR students as the supervisors’ expertise, professional experience and knowledge in the disciplines are primary academic mechanisms in enabling Indigenous HDR students to succeed. Indigenous HDR students also identified the important role supervisors play in providing mentoring during their candidate and the need for access to research training. With completion rates of Indigenous HDR students lagging behind non-Indigenous HDR candidates, it may be timely to reevaluate the roles supervisors play in their success and provide targeted ways for active mentorship and access to research training throughout their research degrees.