1 Philosophy of Environmental Protection

The philosophy of environmental protection has a long history and possesses characteristics of Eastern and Western philosophy. In the early days of agrarian-based cultures, we used and managed the planet’s natural resources by storing and cultivating vegetables (crops) and raising livestock.

China’s environmental education can be traced back 2,500 years to Sima Qian (司馬遷) of the Western Han Dynasty (145–86 BC), the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji)《史記》 is described. In the Five Emperors’ Records, it was recorded that during the reign of Emperor Shun (舜), the position/role of a Yu (虞) officer was created to take charge of the protection of mountains, forests, rivers, plants, birds, and animals. In the Book of Yi Zhou (Lost Book of Zhou) 《逸周書》, it was recorded that Yu the Great (禹)(c. 2123–2025 BC) ordered the following regulations or methods to manage the natural resources:

During spring, do not hack trees with an axe in the mountainous areas, so that you can see vegetation growing up. During summer, do not catch fish with fishing nets in rivers and swamps, and you can see fish and turtles growing up.

He established protocols that prohibited logging in the spring and fishing during the summer. By the Zhou Dynasty, local officials were given the responsibility of protecting the mountains, rivers, forests, and swamps, which further strengthened the protocols in place to protect these natural resources. The use of the environment and its resources by the Chinese emperors has generally been pragmatic. Although the laws and regulations that were established were not originally intended to protect the environment, these people had inadvertently established the concept and practice of environmental sustainability and inspired future generations to take note and adopt the environmental practices of other or previous cultures. For example, Mencius (孟子)(372–289 BC) said:

Without delaying the time for the people to cultivate, the grains will be much to eat. If you can go to the pond without utilizing a fine fishing net, you can eat many fish. If you can go to the forest to cut at the right time, then you cannot run out of wood. There are many grains and fish to eat, as well as much wood to use to be satisfied by human lives.

From the perspective of eastern philosophy, the consciousness of environmental protection is based on the richness of realist products and does not resort to the conservation factors of environmental ethics.

1.1 Theory of Ideas and Empiricism

In the fifth century BC, ancient Greek philosophers believed that nature was a growing and changing organism. Plato (429–347 BC) put forward a holistic view of nature (Table 2.1). In Ennead, Plotinus described Plato’s theory of ideas as: the universe as a whole. Plato believed that in natural ecosystems, there is a mutual relationship between the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. For example, every creature designed by the creator in nature has a special niche in nature. If one species disappears, it can then cause discord in the system. According to Plato, what can be seen by human senses is not real, but rather a form and projection of perfect rationality. Aristotle (384–322 BC) opposed the theory of ideas. He used experience to define the world, tried to observe nature, and collected huge amounts of biological data. Aristotle believed that there are key and minor differences in the elements that comprise an ecosystem. A contemporary view of these concepts is that they are the keystone and foundation species and ecosystem engineers; concepts where an organism defines the entire ecosystem and without that species the ecosystem would probably not exist (Soga and Gaston 2016; Gaston and Soga 2020). Once a key element is lost or changed, it causes the overall ecosystem to change, although the disappearance of a minor part will not affect the integrity of the ecosystem. For example, Aristotle believed that rats cause ecological harm. Therefore, it was necessary to rely on the power of nature, such as the creator to create natural enemies for these rodents to reduce their impact to ecosystems and people.

Table 2.1 Western environmental philosophy
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In the Middle Ages, Europe was similar to ancient China because of the influence of religion. Through forest regulations and/or hunting laws, hunting was prohibited at specific times. Some areas were designated as sacred sites for geographical or religious reasons and were protected from being used for anything but ecological purposes. In medieval Japan, strict laws banned the cutting trees or harvesting of forest products. In the Americas, the traditional Indian belief is that there is a spiritual relationship between humans and prey. Such a relationship will restrict their hunting behavior and the people will not excessively hunt wild animals.

1.2 Transcendence and Efficiency

In modern times, due to the natural view of Christianity, humanitarian thought and the natural view of romanticism, there has been an environmental awareness was incorporated into the belief that the creator has given the environment and its resources to mankind trust nature.

This consciousness is not new, because humans have long used the natural environment, but protecting the environment and its resources seems difficult. As a result, people with lofty ideals are worried about the gradual destruction of the environment and the natural resource protection thoughts that result. This idea of conservation has gradually become the mainstream human approach to environmental protection (Marsden 1997).

In the nineteenth century the concept of natural resource conservation came into being in the United States. However, after Westerners entered the New World as conquerors, wilderness preservation and resource conservation became issues in nature conservation because wilderness preservation and resource conservation were not a priority. In 1836, Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) published Nature to emphasize the direct communication between man and God with Transcendentalism and explored the divinity in human nature. Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) published Walden; or, Life in the Woods in 1854, Marsh’s Man and Nature, were published by George Perkins (1862–1920) in 1864. Through these books, one can see the dialogue or relationship between nature and man from the point of view of a nineteenth century naturalist. Among them, scholars who advocated for wilderness preservation included Emerson, Thoreau (Thoreau 1927, 1990), and Muir (John Muir, 1838–1914). In addition, Gifford Pinchot (1865–1946) advocated for resource conservation (Pinchot 1903).

Emerson and Thoreau, advocated for wilderness conservation and were elite intellectuals in the New England region. They embraced the New England Puritans’ mission and are full of the ideal character for the protection of wilderness ecology. Pinchot, who advocated for the conservation of natural resources, conducted material management in a wise use manner. He promoted the study of conservation biology, applied ecology, public economics, conservation, and utilization, renewable resources were achieved to the highest yield on a sustainable basis.

However, Pinchot’s idea of sustainability mirrored that of the fourth century Chinese Confucian philosopher, Mencius (孟子) (372–289 BC), who said:

Without delaying the time for the people to cultivate, the grains will be much to eat. If you can go to the pond without utilizing a fine fishing net, you can eat a lot of fish. If you can go to the forest to cut at the right time, then you cannot run out of wood. There are many grains and fish to eat, as well as much wood to use to be satisfied by human lives; There is no regret for health and wellbeing, and the beginning of the art of ruling as a king.

The principle of profit distribution seeks the greatest benefit for the largest number of people within the longest period (Pinchot 1903). Pinchot was considered a realist because he advocated for ecology’s best interests based on the anthropocentrism’s enlightened selfishness. The point to be made here is that even during the industrial revolution and humanity’s rise to power, a subset of individuals had not forgotten how dependent humanity had become on nature and protecting/preserving these resources were in the best interests of the survival of the living world, including our species.

1.3 Preservation Theory

In the early twentieth century, John Muir (1838–1914), Enos Mills (1870–1922), Robert Marshall (1901–1939), and Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) advocated for the need for resource protection and habitat preservation, instead of focusing on environmental quality, environmental awareness, and environmental literacy through their publications, public lectures, and appearances (Leopold 1933, 1949; Gottlieb 1995).

Leopold died in 1948 because of a heart attack while fighting a fire on a neighbor’s farm. After his death, the publication of Leopold’s posthumous work A Sand County Almanac in 1949 caused a sensation in the book market and his work remains a cornerstone of the American environmental movement and modern environmental thinking. He questions the mainstream value of pursuing an affluent life at the expense of the environment (Leopold 1949). This thinking laid the foundation for environmental awakening and movements in the 1970s. He questioned whether the mainstream value of pursuing an affluent life was appropriate at the expense of the environment? This thinking laid the foundation for environmental awakening and reconciliation. By 1970, the American people were fighting for civil rights, and with the Vietnam and Cold Wars, people began to worry about the effects of radiation, chemical disasters, air pollution, and radiation pollution, and the general public was exposed to environmentalism. As a result, enthusiastic citizens began to support, promote, and participate in environmental education. On April 22, 1970, Earth Day launched in the United States opened a new milestone for the modern environmental education movement.

In 1971, the National Environmental Education Association was established. It is now known as the North American Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE), hoped to provide teachers with sufficient teaching resources to improve students’ environmental literacy. As one of the key roles for an Executive Director at NAAEE’s Board, Judy Braus also served as many roles as possible to guide ee360 Partner and eeBLUE programs for NAAEE. She tried to create healthier communities that empower local communities, stakeholders, and individuals to restore and protect their environment in the world.

1.4 Vitality Theory and Killing Theory

In 1972, ecologist James Lovelock (1919–) developed the Gaia hypothesis (Lovelock 1972). Gaia is the goddess of the earth in Greek mythology and Lovelock believed that the Earth’s biosphere, including the biotic and abiotic components constitute a new property of self-regulation (emergent property). Biologist Lynn Margulis (1938–2011) supports this hypothesis that this synergistic and self-regulating function helps maintain living conditions and ecosystems on Earth. Lovelock said:

Gaia is not an organism, but an emergent property of interaction among organisms.

The Gaia hypothesis was an inspiration for animistic religious scholars and environmentalists. Towards the twenty-first century, human needed a strong philosophical sense of environmental protection. Many scholars of ecological philosophy and environmental education have accepted this hypothesis to some extent. As a result, the Gaia hypothesis peaked in the 1990s as major environmental issues were being recognized such as acid rain and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) and the public wanted solutions that the scientific community was not able to provide. To put forth the idea that the planet would heal itself in time bought the scientific community much needed time to study these problems more deeply and develop policy to minimize the damage these issues had caused.

The topics discussed by scientists included on how the co-evolution of the biosphere and organisms affected the stability of global temperatures. Ocean precipitation and rocks release salt, how to maintain the salinity of seawater. Plants absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide (CO2), how to maintain the oxygen content in the atmosphere, and the circulation hydrosphere formed by the ocean, freshwater, and groundwater on the earth’s surface, and how it affects the livable environment of the earth. However, biologists have criticized life and the environment for development in a coupled way; they have even criticized the Gaia hypothesis as wishful thinking of human beings (Kirchner 2002).

In 2009, paleontologist Peter Ward (1949–) proposed the Medea hypothesis (Fig. 1.10). Medea, a witch in Greek mythology, killed her child. Ward listed that throughout geologic time, the Earth’ atmosphere was devoid of oxygen and at times was composed of methane and hydrogen sulfide, both of which are toxic to life and induced extinction. The impact of this biocidal phenomenon is directly opposite to the Gaia hypothesis (Ward 2009). Therefore, in the process of self-evolution, the earth has not reached Earth optimal, nor has it been favored for life, or formed a homeostatic mechanism.

Earth system scientist Tyrrell believes that the earth can be said at the best to form the process of Gaia-Co-evolutionary and Influence Gaia. This means that during the evolution of life and the environment, there is a connection between the biological, geophysical, and chemical environments (Tyrrell 2013).

1.5 Deep Ecology

Arne Næss (1912–2009), a proponent of deep ecology, advocates environmental philosophies that embrace the intrinsic value of living things and reject what Banjo calls the ecosystem’s instrumental value to humans (Pinchot 1903). Deep ecology is the balanced relationship between the earth’s evolution of biotic and abiotic processes. He believed that nature is based on complex and delicately balanced relationships. Therefore, human interference in nature not only affects human survival, but also poses a threat to all living things. The Gaia hypothesis is an explanation of deep ecology.

Deep ecology transcends the nature of biology and uses a social conceptual framework and denies human-centered environmentalism through the exploration of human morals, values, and philosophical perspectives. As a result, deep ecology strengthens the theoretical foundations of the environment, ecology, and green movements, advocating wilderness conservation, population control, and simplicity in life (Næss 1973, 1985a, b, 1989). From this philosophical point of view of environmental protection is in of itself a process within which individuals and society recognize the environment in which they live and the interaction between the biological, physical, and social and cultural components that comprise the environment. Individual or collective knowledge, skills and values may be able to address present and future environmental issues (Fig. 2.1).

Environmental conservation must not stop at the biological species level. It needs to consider genetics, ecology, and cultural landscapes. The most basic level the educational process of environmental protection, includes value clarification, knowledge, attitude and skills, and problem solving. The philosophy of these elements also needs to be considered to lay the foundation for the conservation of basic biodiversity and a model of land ethics. Therefore, the foundation of environmental protection lies in the implementation of environmental education that builds an appropriate foundation in environmental literacy. Therefore, environmental education needs to provide students with the correct environmental knowledge that is based on sound science and to develop attitudes and values towards the environment that cultivate student awareness of the surrounding environment, accountability for their actions, and take to take actions to solve environmental problems (Fig. 2.2).

Fig. 2.1
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Ward’s (2009) Medea hypothesis illustrates that throughout geological time the Earth’s atmosphere was once reducing and consisted of poisoning methane (CH4) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas, which induced mass extinctions at times (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

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Fig. 2.2
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Environmental education needs to provide students with environmental knowledge that is based on sound science, accountability, and takes environmental actions to solve environmental problems (National Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 2018) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

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The United Nations adopted five conservation principles of the World Charter for Nature in 1982 to guide and judge human behavior that affects nature. The Charter states:

Mankind is a part of nature and life depends on the uninterrupted functioning of the natural system that provides living organisms with a supply of energy and nutrients.” Civilization is rooted in nature, which has shaped human culture and influenced all artistic and scientific achievements. Living in harmony with nature gives humanity the best opportunities for the development of creativity, rest, and recreation.

Between 1985 and 1987, Næss published a series of book chapters on deep ecology, vociferously calling for changes in human lifestyles such as: Identification as a Source of Deep Ecological Attitudes (Næss 1985a), Ecosophy T: Deep versus Shallow Ecology (Næss 1985b). The Deep Ecological Movement: Some Philosophical Aspects (Næss 1986), Self-Realization: An Ecological Approach to Being in the World (Næss 1987). These papers have had an impact on the environmental and ecological movements of the twenty-first century.

The concept of deep ecology has been combined with environmental movements such as: ecofeminism, social ecology, and bioregionalism. However, the environmental problems caused by human beings are increasing (Fig. 2.3). The net weight of materials and fuels used by humans had increased by 800% in the twentieth century. In addition, the amount of waste returned to the environment has increased substantially as biomass and pollution. By 2023, the global population will exceed 8 billion. By 2050, global population is estimated to reach to 9.7 billion people, and could peak at nearly 11 billion around 2100 (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2019). How can we limit economic development, protect the environment, and human health and reconcile these elements so that they function in harmony with one another without exceeding earth’s carrying capacity have become core themes in environmental development and sustainable growth (Victor 2010)? Coronary artery disease and strokes caused by excessive or poor nutrition account for 32% of all global deaths in 2019 (World Health Organization 2021) and ranks first in human mortalities whereas deaths due to air pollution, i.e., exposure to ambient particulate matter pollution (APMP), such as respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung, tracheal, and bronchial cancers, account for 11.65% of the deaths globally in 2019 (Ritchie and Roser 2021). The side effects of economic growth and development come with environmental and human costs. For example, deaths due to Covid-19 are expected to reach 6.24 million by April 28th, 2022 (Statista, Worldometer 2022). Unfortunately, Covid-19 is probably a prelude to future pandemics that may occur and we’re not prepared to manage these types of problems in systematic and efficient means.

Fig. 2.3
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Human development exceeds the limits of earth’s carrying capacity, becoming a core theme for environmental development and sustainable growth (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

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2 History of Environmental Education

2.1 Early Era of Environmental Education

When or should environmental education be defined and from what point of view? Can the history of environmental education be defined only after the definition was created and what does the definition encompass in scope? If we define environmental education in terms of the history of education, then we need to clarify or identify when and where humankind has evolved from a systematic teaching and learning process. From the transformation course of human civilization, the eastern and western academies have been singing about the natural environment—The Analects of Confucius《論語》, once talked about the dialogue between Master Kong (Confucius)(孔子) (551–479 BC) and his students, including Zeng Dian (曾點). Zeng Dian said:

In the late spring, after the spring clothes have been newly made, I would like, in the company of five or six young men and six or seven children, to cleanse ourselves in the Yi River, to revel in the cool breezes at the Altar for Rain, and then return home singing (Ni 2002: 133).

They would bathe in the river, follow the airs of the rain dance, and return home singing, after sharing in a sacrificial meal in the late spring (Ching 1997). When Confucius heard this, he heaved a long sigh at the time and said: I am with Dian!

Confucius’ social values for learning in the environment reflect the rich learning process of outdoor activities (Fig. 2.4). The historical changes of these education courses not only reflect the history of environmental education, but also the knowledge, beliefs, skills, values, and cultural heritage of the environment that scholars experienced.

Fig. 2.4
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Confucius loves outdoor education, and he preferred his student’s behaviors that: In the late spring, after the spring clothes have been newly made, I would like, in the company of five or six young men and six or seven children, to cleanse ourselves in the Yi River (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

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As such, we should expand the horizon of environmental education and promote the awakening of human culture because the environment is us and we are the environment (Figs. 2.5 and 2.6). The study of environmental education is currently based on the perspective of material, institutional, and spiritual cultures. Therefore, while we admire the liveliness and prestige of Confucius’ teachings and philosophy, it is difficult to discuss when environmental education began because we really can’t narrowly regulate or define what is considered environmental education. These self-limiting frameworks are all based on what scholars believed in the professional field of the self, because society is more psychological, and rejects the ideology of other academic schools to represent the mainstream of scholars in their own education field or institution. That is, the definition of environmental education is not only spatially and temporally controlled, but social norms and values play a substantial role. The definition of environmental education is/or should no longer be based on the identification, understanding, and definition of an experience that has been assessed differently based on the time, place, and philosophy. This is because human beings impart environmental values, environmental research methods, and skills to survive in the environment to the next generation, not only based on the theoretical teaching of teachers, but also emphasize the observation and learning of students themselves (2.7).

Fig. 2.5
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The environment is us and we are the environment (Model by Laura Chung; Photo by Max Horng)

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Fig. 2.6
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We should expand the horizon of environmental education and promote the awakening of human culture (Qixing Mountain, Yangminshan National Park, Taipei, Taiwan) (Photo by Max Horng)

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Fig. 2.7
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The definition of environmental education is not only spatially and temporally controlled, but social norms and values play a substantial role (Shesan, Taiwan) (Photo by Max Horng)

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The learning results produced by these teaching models are probably not similar to the teaching models used today because each person learns and processes information differently. In addition, to being inspired by a teacher, the knowledge and skills each student possesses and the reason for learning these data are different. As such, environmental protection technologies and professional attainment are different.

The Indian Buddha Śākyamuni (566–486 BC) held up a white flower without a word in his teaching. The other disciples were at a loss because no one in the audience understands the Flower Sermon. Only His Holiness Mahākāśyapa (550–549 BC) and the Buddha was indulged in heart and smile with the silence of Zen. Han Yu (韓愈)(768–824) of the Tang Dynasty once said in his article Master Disciples《師說》:

A disciple does not need to be inferior to his teacher, nor does a teacher necessarily need to be more virtuous and talented than his student.

He also said:

The real fact is that one might have learned the doctrine earlier than the other, or might be a master in his own special field.

In the historical development of environmental education for our special field, we can see examples similar to those realized by the Flower Sermon. This is a kind of tacit knowledge, that is, looking outside the scene, looking inside the heart, and we shall find between the sensation of touch and the idea of extension is inexplicable reflected on our perception.

The philosopher Michael Polanyi (1891–1976) proposed tacit knowledge in 1958 (Polanyi 1958, 1966). He said: I shall reconsider human knowledge by starting from the fact that we can know more than we can tell. Environmental education goes beyond the inner perception of The heart of fools is in their mouth, but the tongue of the wise is in their heart. If the knowledge of environmental education cannot be taught through the book descriptions, then we will discuss it through the history of environmental education, the ideas and methods of environmental education, and the development process records of environmental action. Through indwelling, reorienting, and recognizing we will know the stories. Perhaps these stories have happened before environmental education has been defined. However, for us, they are all important stories. We discuss the history of environmental education since the eighteenth century.

2.2 Environmental Education in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries

The roots of contemporary environmental education can be traced back to the eighteenth century. At the time, the novel Émile, written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), emphasized the philosophical argument of civic education and emphasized the concern that children’s natural education was important (Rousseau and Bloom 1979). He proposed three types of education in the book, arguing that educators need to teach according to the natural nature of human beings. The connotation of education includes natural education, things education, and human education.

Rousseau’s educational thought was influenced by people, like Plato, Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592), John Locke (1632–1704), and others. However, he was believed to have pioneered the ideological tradition of naturalistic education and further influenced later generations of thinkers like Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Johann Pestalozzi (1744 –1827), Friedrich Fröebel (1782–1852), John Dewey (1859–1952), and Maria Montessori (1870–1952).

In the early nineteenth century, Pestalozzi, the father of civilian education in Europe, set up a school for the poor in Switzerland at his own expense. He used observation to conduct nature education. Pestalozzi talked about first-level observations, perceptual activities, telling, and then advanced learning with measurement, drawing, writing, numbers, and calculations.

Friedrich Fröbel (1782–1852) founded the first kindergarten or the children’s garden at Blankenburg, Thuringia, Germany in 1837. It used games and manual labor to promote gardening activities in the flowerbeds, vegetable gardens, and orchards. By 1907, Maria Montessori (1870–1952) opened the Casa dei Bambini in her home in Rome. She designed her school in a prepared environment based on human tendencies called Land-based education. Montessori Education used tailor-made education methods to teach students at different stages and with different personalities. At the university level, Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz (1807–1873) responded to Rousseau’s philosophy because he encouraged students to learn about nature, not books. In 1847, Agassi applied to Harvard University as a professor of zoology and geology, and founded the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology. Agassiz believed in experimental knowledge, not knowledge in worthless books.

2.3 Environmental Education in the Early Twentieth Century

Western scholars promoted natural studies around 1890, and began to lead students in natural studies in the early twentieth century. The Cornell University’s professor of natural studies, Anna Botsford Comstock (1854–1930) was an outstanding figure in the natural research movement. She authored the Handbook of Nature Study in 1911 and said: The object of the nature study teacher should be to cultivate a child’s power of accurate observation and to build up within them, understanding (Comstock 1986). Comstock assisted community leaders, teachers, and scientists in transforming science education curricula for American children.

At that time, the people were beginning to feel that environmental damage was getting worst. Scholars were realizing the environmental damage caused by human beings and paid more attention to the topic of environmental education in promoting global conferences (Marsden 1997). Environmental education responded to the Great Depression and sandstorms in the USA economy, and formed the Conservation Education that emerged in the 1920s.

Conservation education is very different from pure natural research. The learning process focuses on monitoring the data generated by rigorous scientific training, not the philosophical study of natural history. Conservation education forms an important scientific management and planning tool, which helps to solve contemporary social, economic, and environmental problems.

A Scottish geologist, Sir Archibald Geikie (1835–1924), believed that human beings could learn endless knowledge from the natural environment, so he included love of nature as an educational goal (Marsden 1997: 11–12). Later, Sir Scott Patrick Geddes (1854–1933), a Scottish botanist, promoted the study of civic areas, critically sought to improve the actual living environment, and carried out local town research courses.

2.4 Environmental Education After the Middle of the Twentieth Century and in the Early Twenty-First Century

At the end of World War II outdoor education was introduced in the 1950s. The 1960s gave birth to the modern environmental movement. To protect the environment, the US has established many international conservation organizations, such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The first Secretary-General of UNESCO, Sir Julian Huxley (1887–1975), was hoping to provide an academic platform for the International Union for Conservation of Nature, initiated a conference. The first conference held at the Palace of Fontainebleau or Château de Fontainebleau in Paris, France (Fig. 2.8). As a result, France, the host country, put nature conservation and habitat protection in its policy framework in 1948.

Fig. 2.8
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The History of Environmental Education (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

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Later, the inter-sessional meeting, that first used the term environmental education, led to the 1949 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). By the 1960s, the United States Congress enacted legislation required that knowledge of natural resource conservation had to be taught at the primary and secondary school levels. In 1968, the United Nations convened a biosphere conference in Paris to promote the meaning of environmental education. By 1969, James A. Swan, under the guidance of William Stapp, published the first article on environmental education in Phi Delta Kappa, within which he discussed the importance of environmental education in caring for the natural and human environment (Swan 1969). Stapp also confirmed the definition of environmental education in that year in the Journal of Environmental Education (Stapp 1969). He defined environmental education as a subject that aimed at producing a citizenry that is knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its associated problems, aware of how to help solve these problems, and motivated to work and participate their solution actively (Stapp 1969: 31).

An important milestone in the history of environmental education of curriculum field was reached in the 1970s (Disinger and Monroe 1994; Reid 2019). Governments of various countries had begun to formulate environmental protection regulations in an effort to solve environmental protection issues.

John F. Disinger, undoubtedly one of the pioneers of environmental education in the United States, retired from the School of Natural Resources, Ohio State University (OSU), and spent half his life on his faculty position leading OSU’s ERIC clearinghouse, established in 1966, known as a resource center for science education, mathematics, and environmental education. From 1979 to 1991, academics in science and environmental education also led the U.S. EPA’s information outreach program in USA. Among them, John F. Dinsinger (1930–2005)(see Fig. 2.9), Robert E. Roth (1937–2021)(see Figs. 2.9 and 2.10), Rosanne W. Fortner (1945–), and Joe E. Heimlich (see Fig. 2.9) are professors in the two fields of cross-environmental education and science education at the School of Natural Resources (SNR, OSU)(now the School of Environment and Natural Resources, SENR, OSU) (Disinger 2001; Fortner 2001; Heimlich et al. 2022). Gary W. Mullins (see Fig. 2.10) served as director of the School of Natural Resources (SNR), OSU from 1998–2004. Mullins worked as an interpretive naturalist and National Park Ranger/Planner (see Fig. 2.10). The academic programs of the Nature Center Symposium were engaged on the topics of the World Earth Day’s special lectures provided by the OSU’s faculties during 2001 (see Figs. 2.11 and 2.12).

Fig. 2.9
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From 1979 to 1991, academics in science and environmental education also led the U.S. EPA’s information outreach program in USA. Some faculties may be served as a consultant to the Nature Conservancy, the USDA Forest Service, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Park Service as EE and communications projects. These project results driven by OSU’s faculties (Left: John F. Dinsinger (1930–2005); middle: Joe E. Heimlich; right: Robert E. Roth (1937–2021)) had been discussed with one of their students, Tim Hsu, in 1995 (Photo by Yi-Hsuan (Tim) Hsu)

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Fig. 2.10
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The academic programs were engaged in at OSU and NTNU faculties, while research being conducted by faculties from OSU’s alumina. From left to right: Huei-Min Tsai (GIEE, NTNU), Tzuchau Chang (GIEE, NTNU), Robert Roth (School of Natural Resources, OSU), Gary Mullins (School of Natural Resources, OSU), Ju Chou (GIEE, NTNU), and Shih-Jang Hsu (National Hualien University of Education, now the National Dong Hwa University) during 2001 (Photo by Huei-Min Tsai)

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Fig. 2.11
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The academic programs of the Nature Center Symposium are engaged on the topics of the World Earth Day’s special lectures provided by the OSU’s faculties (Robert Roth and Gary Mullins, two former Deans of the School of Natural Resources, OSU) for NTNU and Dong Hwa’s graduate students at National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan, April 22th, 2001 (Photo by Ju Chou)

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Fig. 2.12
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Two former Deans of OSU’s School of Natural Resources, as the key persons in environmental education were invited to Taiwan by Ju Chou, one of the OSU’s alumni (Natioswnal Dong Hwa University, Taiwan, April 22th, 2001) (Photo by Ju Chou)

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The cooperation of environmental education programs originated very early. Back to 1970, UNESCO and the IUCN organized an international environmental education schools’ curriculum work conference in Carson City, Nevada, United States, which stated:

Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop the skills and attitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelationships among man, his culture, and his biophysical surroundings.

Environmental education also requires self-regulation in terms of environmental quality issues and practice. This meeting set the goals of school education and detailed the content of each stage (UNESCO 1970).

In 1972, the United Nations convened a conference on the human environment in Stockholm, Sweden. During the meeting, the United Nations Declarations on the Human Environment were resolved. Among them, Principle 19 specifically requires:

Education in environmental matters, for the younger generation as well as adults, giving due consideration to the underprivileged, is essential in order to broaden the basis for an enlightened opinion and responsible conduct by individuals, enterprises and communities in protecting and improving the environment in its full human dimension. It is also essential that mass media of communications avoid contributing to the deterioration of the environment, but, on the contrary, disseminates information of an educational nature on the need to project and improve the environment in order to enable man to develop in every respect.

The Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment hopes that human beings will begin to pay attention to environmental issues and opens up the possibility of a positive interaction between humans and the natural environment. The declaration emphasized that Both aspects of our environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to our well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights the right to life itself. Humans began to attach importance to the quality of environmental life and environmental protection issues began to get attention.

In 1974, the United Kingdom held the Schools’ Council’s Project Environment and revealed three themes of environmental education. They are: Education about the Environment, Education in the Environment or from the Environment, and Education for the Environment. This attracted worldwide attention has a wide range of applications (Palmer 1998).

In 1975, UNESCO and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) jointly promoted the International Environmental Education Programme (IEEP). This project discusses how to raise environmental awareness and promote the environment educational vision (UNESCO 1975).

In 1975, UNESCO introduced the Belgrade Charter at the International Environmental Workshop held in Belgrade. The Charter emphasized:

We need nothing more than a new global ethic— an ethic, which espouses attitudes and behavior for individuals and societies, and are consonant with humanity’s biosphere; which recognizes and sensitively responds to the complex and ever—changing relationships between humanity and nature and between people. Significant changes must occur in all of the world’s nations to assure the kind of rational development, which will be guided by this new global ideal—changes which will be directed towards an equitable distribution of the world’s resources and more fairly satisfy the needs of all peoples.

The Charter distinguishes environmental education from formal education and non-formal education (UNEP 1975). The Belgrade Charter regulates the content and goals of environmental education, promotes the world’s human beings to understand and care about the environment and related issues, possesses appropriate knowledge, technologies, attitudes, motivations, and commitments, and is committed to solving today’s environmental problems.

In 1976, UNESCO released the Environmental Education Newsletter Connect, which serves as an information exchange channel for UNESCO and the official agency of the United Nation’s International Environmental Education Program (IEEP). The purpose was to disseminate environmental education messages and to establish a network of environmental education institutions and individuals. In 1977, UNESCO and the United Nations Environment Programme held the Tbilisi UNESCO-UNEP Intergovernmental Conference in Belize, Georgia (UNESCO 1977). The Tbilisi Declaration’s 41 Guiding Principles on environmental education included environmental education tasks, curriculum teaching, implementation strategies, and international cooperation. Participants of the Tbilisi Declaration stated:

The goals of environmental education are: (1) to foster clear awareness of, and concern about, economic, social, political, and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas; (2) to provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment, and skills needed to protect and improve the environment; (3) to create new patterns of behavior of individuals, groups, and society as a whole towards the environment (UNEP 1977).

The fundamental task of environmental education was supposed to closely link with ethics and values. For example, its purpose was to illustrate about the need for environmental education and provide everyone with the opportunity to learn the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitments, and technologies needed to protect and improve the environment. As for the goal of environmental education, it mentions the need to help social groups and individuals to acquire an awareness and sensitivity… a set of values and feelings of concern for the environment and the motivation for actively participating in environmental improvement and protection. Therefore, the Tbilisi Declaration put forward five goals of environmental education including awareness, knowledge, attitude, skills, and participation.

The United Nations established the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in 1983. It was concerned about environmental protection and economic development. It symbolized the relationship between human beings and the environment, care for human survival, and development in the environment. In 1987, the committee issued the Our Common Future declaration at the United Nations General Assembly by its chair, Gro Harlem Brundtland (1939–), who officially defined sustainable development. Sustainable development was a development model that could meet our current needs without compromising future generations to meet their needs. She called for global recognition and care for the natural environment and for vulnerable groups.

In 1990, the U.S. Congress passed the National Environmental Education Act (NEEA) to solve environmental problems by improving the problems through educating people using environmental education. And in 1992, the United Nations convened the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It adopted the world-famous Agenda 21 and planned the concept of sustainable development as a concrete action plan, emphasizing the future generation towards caring, awareness of the limited nature of natural environment resources, and assistance to disadvantaged ethnic groups (UN 1992).

2.5 Environmental Education in the Twenty-First Century

In 2002 the United Nations again convened world leaders and chose Johannesburg, South Africa to host the World Sustainable Development Summit. The organizers decided to invite partner organizations to work together to resolve the issue of protecting the environment, narrowing the gap between rich and poor, and protecting the environment of human life. In 2002, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution declaring that the UN Decade (2005–2014) had passed the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UN DESD 2005–2014).

By 2005, UNESCO officially promoted the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development and strived to mobilize international education resources to create a sustainable future. Five principles are imagining a better future, critical thinking and reflection, participation in decision-making, partner relationships, and systems thinking. The adoption of Chapter 40 of Agenda 21 emphasizes the education was a way for capacity-building. Although education alone cannot achieve a sustainable future, without sustainable development of education and learning, humankind will not be able to achieve this goal. The overall goal of the UN DESD is to integrate the principles, values, and practices of sustainable development into the education and learning dimension. Education should be based on sustainable development that encourages changes in human behavior and creates a more sustainable future in terms of environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society that meets contemporary and future generations.

In 2012, the United Nations returned to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to host the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio + 20) to commemorate the twentieth anniversary of the 1992 Earth Summit. The conference took green economy as the theme and aimed to eradicate poverty and promote global development. It is hoped to promote a green economy by establishing relevant mechanisms and organizations. By 2014, the UN called for mainstreaming sustainable development education at the World Conference on Sustainable Development Education in Nagoya, Japan. UNESCO launched the Global Action Programme on Education for Sustainable Devolepment (GAP). In May 2015, at the World Education Forum held in Incheon, Republic of Korea, it planned to implement 2030 Education and planned to adopt the Incheon Declaration on Education 2030. The Global Education Monitoring Report (GEM Report) plans to ensure inclusive and fair quality education and to provide lifelong learning opportunities for all. In September 2015, the UN General Assembly passed the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development to promote the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The international community understands that in addition to promote Goal 4: Quality education, as well as other sustainable goals need to be developed through education.

Today, with the international recognition and adoption of the Global Education 2030 Agenda, its aim is to eradicate poverty through sustainable development by 2030. At present, UNESCO uses the mechanism of SDGs, the GEM Report, and the Education for All (EFA) based on Regional Comprehensive Report to develop the GAP.

As a result, formal and non-formal educators around the world are continuing their efforts to promote education for sustainable development, especially in reimagine urban EE and in restoring the Nature in EE (Reid et al. 2021). One of the key authors in Reid et al. (2021), Justin Dillon, the UK Professor at the Science and Environmental Education, Director for Research in STEM Education at the South West Institute of Technology Observatory, University of Exeter, also taught at the University of Bristol before, has developed urban EE in science education working with schools, museums, science centers, aquariums, and botanic gardens. As the President of the National Association for Environmental Education (UK), Dillon emphasized the importance of the STEM education as well as encouraged people to learn outside beyond school environment (Dillon 2014, 2019).

Many EE conferences have been organized around the world. The World Environmental Education Congress (WEEC) congresses are the most significant existing experience of connecting all actors at the international level in the field of environmental education as well as the sustainability education. Since 2003 the international network has organized eleven World Congresses, attracted the participation of thousands of people from over 100 different countries (please see https://weec2022.org).

The content of education for sustainable development encompasses a humanistic education and development concept, and we share our responsibilities and obligations with human rights, dignity, social justice, tolerance, protection, culture, language, and ethnic diversity, and work together, such as international chapter’s meetings held for wetland conservation, restoration, and education worldwide (as one of the examples: 2019 Society of Wetland Scientists (SWS) Asia Chapter Meeting, Suncheon, Republic of Korea; please see Fig. 2.13).

Fig. 2.13
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Education based on sustainable development encourages changes in human behavior and creates a more sustainable future in terms of environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society that meets contemporary and future generations to save limited resources. From left to right: Chang-Po Chen (an ecosystem ecologist and ecological engineer, Academia Sinica, Taiwan, ROC); Patrick Megonigal (a soil ecologist of tidal wetlands, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, SERC, USA); William J. Mitsch (an ecosystem ecologist and ecological engineer, OSU & Florida Gulf Coast University, USA); and Hwey-Lian Hsieh (an ecosystem ecologist and ecological engineer, Academia Sinica, Taiwan, ROC) (2019 Society of Wetland Scientists (SWS) Asia Chapter Meeting, Suncheon, Republic of Korea)(Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

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In 2019, Chew-Hung Chang, the Dean of Academic and Strategic Development in Nanyang Technological University of Singapore invited fifteen international scholars, including Wei-Ta Fang, Tzu-Chau Chang from the National Taiwan Normal University, and Yi-Hsuan (Tim) Hsu (Global Environmental Enhancement Inc.), Gillian Kidman (Monash University, Australia), Judy Braus (NAAEE) as well as other professors recommended by Global Environmental Education Partnership (GEEP) (https://geepaprc.org/en) to discuss the draft and issue the Singapore Declaration on Research in Education for Sustainable Development, in response to the demands for education research on sustainable development in 2030, see Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Development history of environmental education conferences
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3 Summary

We conducted research on environmental education in the early twentieth century, conservation education in the 1920s, environmental protection education in the 1970s, and sustainable development education in the 2000s. In this chapter we proposed a theoretical and practical framework from the studies of the philosophy and history of EE, and discussed the framework of research and practice from multiple perspectives and orientations in multi-cultures. We explored the in-depth fields of environmental education according to the different cultural and social backgrounds of great teachers’ and masters’ in history. Therefore, according to the critical analysis method of the problem currently, the process of learning is emphasized rather than the result from lessons.