Abstract
The non-coincidence of sexual, general-organic, and socio-cultural maturation as the basis for the specificities and features of the transitional age—Anatomical and physiological features of the transitional age—The critical character of the transitional age—The intensification of growth processes—Bodily proportion in the transitional age—The growth of bones, muscles, vascular and nervous systems in this period—General characteristics of physical development in the adolescent—changes in motor abilities in the transitional age—Tiredness and the daily routine in the adolescent—Pedological basics of physical enculturation in the period of sexual maturation.
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Notes
- 1.
The term вocпитaниe vospitaniye means raising or upbringing, and it includes both what parents do at home and what teachers do at school. But “physical raising” or “physical upbringing” in English does not really suggest a pedagogical practice. For this reason we have chosen to translate Vygotsky’s term физичecкoe вocпитaниe fizicheskoye vospitaniye as “physical enculturation” rather than “physical upbringing”. Vygotsky has in mind a physical education which is the pedagogical part of improving health and is a part of human culture.
- 2.
Hans Wilhelm Carl Friedenthal (1870–1942) was an anthropologist and a physiologist who taught at the University of Berlin. He was an early advocate of sex education for adolescents and wrote numerous books on marriage counselling. He also demonstrated the serological (blood) affinity between humans and apes and used morphological variation to demonstrate that Jews were not a race but a religious community. Although he was of Jewish descent, he refused to leave Germany even when he was dismissed from his university post by the Nazis, believing that his patriotism and the fact that he had invested his (large) family fortune in Hitler’s worthless war bonds would save him. He committed suicide as the Nazis were arriving to take him to an extermination camp.
- 3.
Blonsky was a biologizing pedologist—as we saw in Chap. 3, and in Footnote 1 of Chap. 4, he held that the child’s teeth permit the consumption of meat, and the consumption of meat increases the child’s energy and makes schooling historically necessary.
Richard Thurnwald (1869–1954) was an Austrian anthropologist, working in the South Pacific and in East Africa, and eventually teaching in Berlin. Thurnwald was a functionalist; i.e. he believed that institutions such as gift-giving could be explained by their social function (pre-capitalist exchanges). At the same time, he was an evolutionist, i.e. he believed that function had to be explained by historical specificity (so that pre-capitalist exchanges don’t lead to investment but to consumption). As a professor at the University of Berlin, Thurnwald was a reviewer for the PhD thesis of Eva Justin, a nurse who spoke the Romani language and wanted to “study” a group of Romani children in order to help the Nazi “racial hygiene” programme. After she received her PhD she arranged for all her children to be exterminated at Auschwitz. Most of them were killed, although some were first the subject of medical experiments by Dr. Joseph Mengele, who specialized in vivisections. Thurnwald gave her a “B” on her thesis.
- 4.
Armand Corré (1841–1908) was a doctor in the French navy who specialized in sleeping sicknesses and yellow fevers. He traveled widely and produced books on everything from poisonous fish to sociology—Vygotsky is probably referring to 1882 book, La mère et l’enfant dans les races humaines (“Mother and child in the human races”). In it, he argues for a strict hierarchy of human races—and the length of childhood is, as Vygotsky says, one of the criteria of development. He got into trouble for defending the rights of local people in Madagascar. The colonial governor decided he would share their condition and put him in chains to ship him to back to France like a slave. He then settled in France and became a teacher. G. Stanley Hall cites him in his big book on adolescence, but only as a criminologist.
- 5.
The word oтpoчecтвa or “youth” is a somewhat literary way of describing the transition to adulthood. See Footnote 15, Chap. 4.
- 6.
Élie Metchnikoff (Илья Ильи́ч Méчникoв, 1845–1916) worked with Pasteur in Paris, for which he was given the Nobel Prize in 1908. His ideas about nature are, as Vygotsky says, Rousseauvian and Tolstoyan. A Haeckelian, he believed that in the natural state, “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”. But human beings interfere with its recapitulation by filling their intestines with alien bacteria, and the only way to counteract this is with other bacteria, i.e. eating yogurt and drinking sour milk. That is why a famous brand of yogurt is named after him (the Danon yogurt company was also set up by one of his followers).
- 7.
The opening quotation mark in this paragraph appears to be missing, although there is something like a single comma just before “This second birth”, and Russian punctuation would not require Vygotsky to offset “Rousseau says” with quotes. But this would make it seem like a direct quote from Rousseau, and it is not. When Rousseau speaks of adolescence as a second birth, he is actually talking about something else—the inferiority of women!
We are, so to speak, born twice: once to exist and once to live; once for our species and once for our sex. Those who regard women as an imperfect man are doubtless wrong, but the external analogy is on their side. Up to the nubile age, children of the two sexes have nothing apparent to distinguish them: the same visage, the same figure, the same complexion, the same voice. Everything is equal: girls are children, boys are children, the same name suffices for being so much alike. Males whose ulterior sexual development is prevented maintain this similarity their whole lives; they are always big children. And women since they never lose this same similarity, seem in many respects never to be anything else. But man in general is not made to remain always in childhood. He leaves it at the time prescribed by nature; and this moment of crisis, although rather short has far reaching influences. (Rousseau, 1762/1978, p. 211)
- 8.
Lucien Lévy-Bruhl (1857–1939) was an “armchair” anthropologist—one who never travelled or did field work beyond a library. He stayed in France, where he studied philosophy and taught history. While teaching history, he became influenced by the work of Emile Durkheim, who was trying to establish sociology as a discipline independent of history. He then began to apply Durkheimian principles to pre-modern societies and founded modern anthropology. He also developed two important ideas that influenced Vygotsky.
The first was the idea of collective representations, or “complexes”. These were not concepts but the kind of generalized images that we see in tribal totems (e.g. “clans” based on a magic animal), and also in fairy tales (e.g. imaginary characters like the wicked stepmother, the fairy godmother). The second idea that influenced Vygotsky was the idea of mystical participation, a non-logical, and thus non-causal, relationship between a person and some event that was mediated by a god or spirit or by the life-death cycle itself (e.g. fate, luck, or some magic spell).
These two ideas were the basis of his books on human thinking in what he called “inferior societies”, and they are also the basis of the work he did on death and birth rituals, which were both complexes and forms of participation. On the one hand, all such rites involve generalized images of community members (rather than concepts like citizenship or nationality). On the other, all such rites involve participation, offering the community mystical control over life and death. After Vygotsky died, though, Lévy-Bruhl criticized his own theories as racist, and argued that there is no qualitative difference between people in “inferior societies” and our own.
- 9.
Note that this explanation (based on Lévy-Bruhl) like so much of the adolescent psychology of the time is restricted to the male and ignores the female. But female rites of passage are if anything more salient (because of the first menstrual period) and more widespread. Take, for example, rites of passage for women in Sudan, e.g. scarification and female genital mutilation.
- 10.
For an account of Richard Thurnwald, see Footnote 4. Arthur Maurice Hocart (1883–1939) studied psychology and phenomenology at the University of Berlin and then joined the Evans-Pritchard expedition to the Solomon Islands, where he made the observations that Vygotsky notes here. He then took a job as a schoolmaster in Fiji, where he recorded coming of age ceremonies for women.
- 11.
G. Stanley Hall was an American “biogenetic” theorist of adolescence. For a biographical note, see Chap. 14 of Volume 2. Eduard Spranger was a German “cultural psychological” theorist of adolescence. For a critique of both, see Chap. 4 of the present volume.
- 12.
Georg Michael Anton Kerschensteiner (1854–1932) was a German educator, who was director of public schools in Munich (1895 to 1919) before becoming a professor of education at the University of Munich. He was a strong advocate of “sound mind and healthy body” and argued against the over-intellectualization of teaching methods and for the promotion of physical education. He was also interested in character education, and he argued that the child could only be made altruistic in the course of professional egoism—that is, by showing the child that he or she can only get ahead through others. For this reason, group work was heavily promoted in his “activity school”. He wrote:
How then shall we tackle the question of educating the young citizen to develop an altruism which is born of insight? There only seems one answer possible to this question—at his work…the vast majority of young people are engaged in some kind of employment and want to advance by means of their work. Their interests are centred on their job and nearly all of the youngsters are to be won over through this sphere of interest. If we win the boy (sic) over in this way, we also gain his confidence and with that we can guide him both intellectually and morally. See D. Simons (1966/2016) Georg Kerschensteiner: His Thought and its Relevance Today. p. 47.
We can see from this what “professional egotism” means. Previously, we trained children to do very boring physical tasks (e.g. learning to type) with the promise of a rewarding job (e.g. being a secretary instead of a factory worker). Now we teach children to “cooperate” in an office with the promise of “advancement” (e.g. being a manager instead of a secretary). And we can also see why Vygotsky remarks that Kerschensteiner says this “not without reason”. It is a perfectly expedient adaptation to the job market (though this is changing so rapidly that expedience today may be inexpedient tomorrow!). But “professional egotism” is still very far from teaching concepts such as altruism and practices such as sharing as a single unitary form of knowing.
We can also see that Kerschensteiner assumes that all of his “young citizens” are boys—not girls. Girls have an obvious, immediate, and even biological reason to develop altruism that does not directly involve “advancement”: friendship, marriage and motherhood. But German psychologists of Kerschensteiner’s time had a professional reason to ignore girls. Perhaps we can call this their “professional egoism”?
- 13.
For a biographical note on Jaensch, see Chap. 4, Footnote 18. Both Jaensch and Spranger are assuming a German romantic-idealist view of adolescence. In this view, the romanticism of the adolescent is unrelated to sexual maturation.
Instead, it is related to socio-cultural maturation! Now, what this means is some “stretching” of the meaning of socio-cultural maturation: it has to involve love, but it cannot involve sex. There is also some “forcing” of the facts, since love usually comes to the adolescent in a very concrete form—that of another adolescent.
- 14.
Vygotsky seems to be referring to E. A. Arkin, not “G. E. Arkin”. For a biographical note on E. A. Arkin, see Chap. 3, Footnote 1. The distinction between being “in himself” and being “for himself” is from Hegel’s “Logic”, section 91. Instead of considering objects in themselves, as Kant did (that is, objects that are unknowable to humans), Hegel starts with “being” (i.e. reality), then speaks of “being for others” and finally “being for itself”, which corresponds to mature consciousness (Hegel, 1830/1975). These three stages are used by Vygotsky is his description of how a gesticulation becomes a pointing gesture:
(a) A random movement is a movement in itself.
(b) A movement interpreted as a pointing gesture is a movement for others.
(c) An intentional pointing gesture is a movement for oneself. (Vygotsky, 1997, pp. 104–105)
Similarly, concepts develop from natural heaps given by perception, through complexes of generalized perceptions only attached to word meanings by others, to true concepts, where the child can master the act of thinking in the word meaning freely and independently of others (Vygotsky, 1987).
- 15.
In the conclusion of Spranger (1924).
- 16.
Not to be confused with S. Rubinstein (a key figure in activity theory in the fifties), Moises Matveevich Rubinstein (Moиceй Maтвeeвич Pyбинштeйн, 1880–1953) was the founder and first president of the East Siberian University in Irkutsk, where he was born. He studied German and philosophy at Berlin and Freiburg, but went into pedology and education when he returned to Russia. In 1927, he wrote “On the Meaning of Life”, in which he argued for a combination of idealism and realism, with man at the centre of the universe. Although he argued against metaphysics and for a monist world view, he was severely criticized, and went into pedagogy in his later work.
- 17.
Table 5.1 gives data on the height in centimeters and the weight in kilograms of adolescents. Vygotsky says the data is taken from Aryamov's book, which Vygotsky cites in the references. One data set comes from Aryamov's own study of Moscow area schools. The second is apparently from a study of Ukrainian children published by L. P. Nikolaev, and this study is also used in Tables 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, and 5.7. Vygotsky refers to Nikolaev's Ukrainian study, done in 1926, in 9. By 1930, when this book was being written and Vygotsky was attending medical school in the Ukraine, there was already a severe famine there. The third study is by Erismann and is therefore quite old.
Friedrich Huldreich Erismann (1842–1915) was a hygienist who founded public, preventative medicine in Russia. He was born in Switzerland and became an eye doctor. Moving to Germany he married a Russian woman. He then moved to Russia and became a professor at Moscow University. In 1896, however, he was fired for hiding students protesting against the Czar and went back to Switzerland, where he founded the Socialist Party. The data that Vygotsky presents from his work is obviously rather out of date, as he died well before the revolution.
Ivan Antonovich Aryamov, (Ивaн Aнтoнoвич Apямoв, 1884–1958) was a pedologist, and a follower of Blonsky. He was, therefore, biologically oriented. He originally trained as a doctor and served in World War I, but was wounded. He then became a teacher. After the revolution, he worked in child protection, where he carried out extensive surveys in the Moscow region. The book Vygotsky cites, “The Adolescent Worker”, was heavily influenced by Blonsky and the reflexologists.
- 18.
Carl Heinrich Stratz (1858–1924) was a Russian-German gynecologist. He had a theory of child development which divided it into periods of non-sexual, bisexual childhood (where the child’s sexuality was not yet polarized) and then maturity. The charts in Table 5.3, from Arkin’s book, show the child’s height in centimetres given on the left side and plotted (dotted line for girls and solid line for boys) on the upper curve, with the child’s weight in kilograms given on the right side and plotted on the lower curves. It will be seen that Stratz’s theory is not well supported by Arkin’s data, and that girls have different developmental trajectories than boys.
- 19.
In addition to published studies by Kurkin and Nikolaev, Vygotsky cites figures supplied in Aryamov. In the USSR, there were no private schools, but some belonged to various factories, industries, or centers of infrastructure such as transport. Here Vygotsky cites data collected at a school that belonged to the Moscow–Kiev–Voronezh railway. It’s not clear what the “growth-weighted indicators” actually represent, and it is not explained in the text. Perhaps it is some formula intended to give us the same information we use for body mass index today. The same indicator, marked “E.I.”, appears in Table 5.11.
- 20.
What are the links between meat eating and the “second stretching” of childhood described by Stratz? (See Table 5.3). There are—at least—three, but they are not equally scientific.
Firstly, there is the scientific generalization that grazing animals tend to store food inside their bodies and consequently require larger fat reserves. Hunting animals tend to store food outside their bodies (as prey or as kill) and consequently can stay lean and mobile. Of course there are plenty of long-necked, long-legged narrow-faced herbivores (e.g. giraffes) and short-necked, short-legged, round-headed carnivores (cats). But as a general scientific observation, this generalization is more or less true.
Secondly, there are the increased demands that growth places on the body, resulting in an expanded appetite for meat and long periods of fatigue that remind us a little of lions sleeping after the kill. Vygotsky discusses adolescent fatigue at some length below. Although many of the generalizations Vygotsky makes here are still recognized as valid (e.g. that blood pressure increases during adolescence), Vygotsky is careful to qualify them (and in fact blood pressure in girls does not seem to increase much).
Thirdly, there is the prescientific thinking about personality according to which a personality type may be more or less read off from a body type. For example, Shakespeare refers to “lean and hungry” characters and “fat and jolly” personalities in Julius Caesar. In this pre-scientific thinking, typologies are simply taken over directly from carnivorous and herbivorous animals and given a rather arbitrary “personality”. We still see this in cartoon characters, especially anthropomorphized animals.
The typology Vygotsky refers to here was that of Kretschmer, who classified personalities according to “bodily type”. His idea was that asthenics (literally “without strength”) were thin, lean, and tall without muscle, and thus unsociable, shy, pessimistic and always alone. Asthenics, like teenagers, eat a lot, but never get fat. In contrast, the pyknic (herbivore-type) were sociable and jolly, eating vegetables but getting fat. The German athletic type, of course, was the ideal!
- 21.
Page 132. We have taken the original text from the volume listed in the references rather than re-translated from Vygotsky’s Russian. Stanley Hall’s language is, as Vygotsky remarks over-charitably, rather “splendid”—words like “velleity” are not much used any more (Stanley Hall 1907).
- 22.
August Homburger, 1873–1930) was a Heidelberg child psychiatrist who established in 1917 one of the first systems for child and adolescent psychiatric counseling. In 1926, he wrote the pioneering textbook The Psychopathology of Childhood, which takes the “convergence” view of Gesell, that mental illness in children is a combination of environmental factors and biological ones. This is, as Vygotsky points out, not at all the same thing as a developmental point of view.
Mikhail Osipovich Gurevich (Mиxaил Ócипoвич Гypéвич, 1878–1953) was a student of Bekhterev and a founder of Soviet psychiatry. From 1925 until 1934 he was head of the Institute for Higher Nervous Activity at the Communist Academy, where he took part in some of the violent criticisms of Vygotsky’s work in June 1932. Guryevich then moved to Moscow University, where he taught until 1950, when he was purged during the anti-Jewish campaign against “rootless cosmopolitanism”.
- 23.
In Soviet times, young people were required to do various kinds of community service or work in collectives, e.g. various offices of the Young Pioneers at class or school level, taking part in debate clubs, and political study meetings, or serve on the student council. All these duties (oбщecтвeннaя paбoтa) were important part of their lives. Strangely, Aryamov’s data does not actually support Vygotsky’s statement that community service took only twenty minutes to half an hour a day.
- 24.
The Factory Apprenticeship Schools were created in 1920 and lasted until Hitler’s invasion of the USSR. They were usually established in large enterprises and their main function was to produce skilled workers and technicians. They would enroll children who had at least a primary education between 14 and 18 years of age, and they carried out general education alongside vocational training. In the 1920s, the schooling lasted for seven years, but in 1930–1939 this was reduced to one and a half or two years.
- 25.
The term “scissors crisis” has a very special meaning here. During the year 1923, Lenin and Trotsky introduced a “New Economic Policy” which allowed peasants the freedom to buy and sell food. Almost immediately, the economy suffered from what Trotsky called a “scissors”. The cities needed food, but had very little to trade for it, so the prices of manufactures went up, while the prices of foodstuffs went down. Eventually, peasants simply turned to feeding themselves, and the government, now under Stalin, reacted with violence. This led to famine in the years that Vygotsky is writing this (1931–1934). Aryamov’s point is that the adolescent’s natural strength (the adolescent’s “rural” economy) is increasing very rapidly (thanks to sexual maturation and general-organic growth). But the adolescent’s socio-cultural control (the adolescent’s planned, centralized, “urban” economy) has nothing to give for it yet. This produces a “scissors” of emotionality and lack of self-control.
- 26.
L. P. Nikolaev (Л. П. Hикoлaeв, 1898–1954) was a doctor and an anthropologist, anatomist and doctor who did anthropometric studies in the Ukraine with his students during the revolutionary years 1923–1927. He wrote over a hundred books, on subjects that ranged from embalming practices in ancient Egypt to physical features of Dostoevsky’s characters. He also invented store mannequins for selling clothing, prostheses for people who lost their limbs, and ways of standardizing clothes and shoe sizes for carrying out surveys of children’s dress habits which are still used today. He married a well-known osteopath, O. B. Nedrigailova-Nikolaeva. With his wife, he developed a revolutionary surgical operation to treat polio. Tragically, he died in a botched surgical operation by one of his colleagues.
- 27.
Vygotsky says that he is much more pessimistic than Aryamov about the general health status of adolescents in the USSR; he points out that Aryamov's data is based in the Factory Apprenticeship Schools which have access to healthier children and better resources. Vygotsky is clearly aware of the disaster of Stalin's second five-year plan, the grueling overwork that children are facing in the countryside, and the growing famine that is devouring Soviet youth.
What exactly does Vygotsky mean by “conjoined contradictions”? In his examination of Aryamov’s data, he’s been careful to point out the very large size of the standard deviations. Just consider, for example, the difference between maximum and minimum weight for 15-year-olds in Table 5.10—in a sample size of only nine children, there is still a difference of nearly thirty kilogrammes, If we simply look at the averages, we miss the crucial fact about the data, which is that there is almost nothing average here: it is an age of extreme variation.
What is true for the population is also true for the individual: by focusing on overall growth, we miss the conjoined contradictions of the Critical Period at the beginning of adolescence. Stratz noted that sometimes height grows much faster than weight, and sometimes it is the other way around. Vygotsky has already noted that the vascular system is expanding faster than the heart, and that the brain is hardly growing at all, but the nervous system is developing extremely rapidly as a whole. Above all, the adolescent’s newfound ability to reproduce—the sex instinct—is growing much more quickly than the sociocultural ability to provide for it. All of this creates a “scissors crisis”: certain capacities are growing much faster than the ability to control and to regulate them.
- 28.
It is not clear where the quotations begin. There also appears to be a misprint in the Russian version: Vygotsky means “affective-moral”—i.e. emotional and moral overwork related to the psychological, intellectual and affective instability of the age—rather than “effective-moral”.
V. G. Stefko (Bлaдимиp Гepмaнoвич Штeфкo, 1893–1945) was a student of the celebrated histologist B. I. Lavrentiev and the teacher of important pathologists like F. E. Ageichenko and V. I. Puzik. Vygotsky would have been familiar with his extensive work on tuberculosis. But Stefko also had a theory of bodily type that was similar to the ones being developed by the Germans: children could be classified into “asthenoid”, “digestive”, “thoracic”, “muscular”, and “abdominal” constitutions, and these had implications for their physical development and then their character. This system was heavily criticized, and he killed himself in 1945, at the end of the war.
P. B. Gannushkin (Пётp Бopи́coвич Гáннyшкин, 1875–1933) developed the modern concept of personality disorder, and he as the author of the Russian version of the present day diagnostic and statistical manual for mental illness (DSM). A student of Sergei Korsakov, he became a professor at Moscow University before the revolution but left in protest against government control. He founded an independent journal of psychopathology and wrote against the theory of C. Lombroso (“Psychology of Crowds”) that people are born criminals. Nevertheless, he classified his patients into recognizable categories like asthenic, unstable, antisocial, and constitutionally stupid. According to the chapter on schizophrenia in Vygotsky’s Notebooks (2018), he also took part in the criticisms of Vygotsky.
- 29.
The Soviet school grading system was of 5 points which might corresponded roughly to A through F or 5 through 1, but the bottom two grades were both considered failing. Students having mostly 3–5 were called ycпeвaющиe, which we have translated as “successful”, students with lover grades were called нeycпeвaющиe as “unsuccessful” or “underachieving”.
Irving King was a professor at the State University of Iowa in the USA who wrote a book called High School Age in 1914. At the time, the dropout rate was about 88% in American high schools. King argued that this was because adult life offered more opportunities to adolescents that adolescence was not a distinct stage of life a part of adult life, after the “animality” of childhood.
- 30.
Z. I. Chuchmarev (Зaxapий Ивaнoвич Чyчмapeв, 1888–1961) was a student of Chelpanov who became a labor psychologist. He was especially interested in psychotechnics (job selection) and the effects of overwork (Stakhanovism). His books have been largely suppressed for two reasons: first of all, he did a lot of secret work on fatigue in pilots during the war. Secondly, he cited Bukharin as a major Marxist philosopher.
- 31.
Isidor Isaak Sadger (1867–1942) was student of Freud who gave us terms like “sadomasochism” and “narcissism”. It is actually not very surprising that he imagined a link between muscular development and eroticism: he was a man with a considerable imagination. For example, he specialized in trying to “cure” homosexuality and believed that gay men want to castrate their fathers by having sex with men and somehow magically obtaining their masculine virtue so that they can access their mothers! He died in a Nazi concentration camp (probably Theresienstadt).
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Vygotsky, L.S. (2022). A General Outline of the Transitional Age. The Anatomical and Physiological Features of Adolescence. In: L. S. Vygotsky's Pedological Works, Volume 3. Perspectives in Cultural-Historical Research, vol 11. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-2972-4_5
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