Keywords

1 Introduction

The aims of this chapter are to highlight the role of the automotive, PVC manufacturing and catering sectors in greening the economy, define and reorient competences towards environmental friendly green practices, and to recognise skills through RVA mechanisms, thus making green skills sustainable.

First, the chapter looks at green skills in Malaysian socio-economic and educational contexts. Second, it examines the environmental challenges in Malaysia. At the institutional level, it analyses stakeholders’ involvement in green skills conceptualisation and standardisation as well as RVA implementation and greening of TVET and curricula. This empirical study examines the engagement of enterprises with green practices and green skills and the potential of their inclusion in RVA mechanisms.

Socio-economic and educational context

While Malaysia aims to provide a decent standard of living to all Malaysian by 2030 through Shared Prosperity Vision 2030 (Prime Minister’s Office of Malaysia Official Website 2019), the paradigm shift from an industry-driven economy to a knowledge economy—competitive in the global economic context—is bound to affect the environment. Malaysia has adopted a national strategy for sustainable development that intends to benefit not only environmental protection but also economic livelihoods, socio-cultural and spiritual resources.

Such an awareness has sparked a number of green practices under various ministries in Malaysia in the areas ranging from green technology, green transport to infrastructure and green industry. The Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water was established to promote research and development of green technologies in Malaysia. The National Green Technology Policy (NGTP) comprising energy, environment, economy and social affairs was launched with the aim of ensuring the use of green technology in production.

According to McKinsey's research, 6 million new jobs are expected to be created by 2030 (McKinsey Report 2020) that requires skilled and semi-skilled workers to be equipped with generic green skills, reflecting the growing demand for a competent workforce for a greener economy.

Green skills are essential in the workplace for sustainable development because they are based on attitudes, values and ethical behaviour, and are acquired through non-formal and informal on-the-job learning. The recognition of environmentally friendly practices and green skills in non-formal and informal economic sectors is a crucial factor in accomplishing the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) (UNESCO 2015). Despite the existence of government policies and environmental legislation, micro, small and medium enterprises have been slow in recognising environmentally friendly practices and still lack methods for making environmentally friendly competences visible by putting an enterprise-based recognition system in place.

Skills are essential for the environmental sustainability of future generations. Thus, it is considered essential to make the importance of green skills clear to the public through the education system. However, Hanim et al. (2019) suggested environmental education in Malaysia must be reviewed to ensure knowledge and all aspects of the environment should be embedded in the new education syllabus. Arasinah et al. (2018) added, to promote awareness concerning the importance of green skills to the wider public, it is the responsibility of all parties because these skills are relevant for everyone, including people working in private enterprises of every size.

Some of the ways environmental education is promoted through education in Malaysia are listed below:

  • The Ministry of Rural Development promotes environmental hygiene education through the Kemas kindergarten new curriculum. The ministry has also developed lifelong learning programmes for educating rural people on environmental protection, especially dealing with the protection of rivers, dangers of open burning and waste management including disposal of plastic waste (Aini and Laily 2010). The intended outcome is the reduction of environmental pollution by 47 per cent.

  • The Ministry of Education has introduced environmental education at all levels of education from primary and low secondary to upper secondary and higher education.

  • The Malaysian Quality Assurance (MQA) of the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia promotes green skills as a part of generic skills in both academic and vocational institutions as a continuous effort in creating awareness, educating and nurturing the Malaysian generation towards taking up the responsibility to sustain environmental quality and green ecosystem.

  • Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is being given special attention by the public and private sectors as it not only leads to the efficient use of green technologies but also improves workforce skills required to qualify people for jobs related to energy efficiency, renewable energy and waste management. A well-trained and environmentally aware workforce is believed will help in improving resource efficiency. The right training programmes for workers will help Malaysian economies redeploy the workers who find it difficult to get jobs. Increasingly, formal training is complemented through special attachment programmes such as job training, industrial training and vocational subjects (Misko 2008). Tilak (2002) highlighted the importance of non-formal on-the-job learning versus formal vocational and technical secondary school education in several East Asian countries. The aim is to expose trainees to the changing world of work.

Learning green skills is an important part of enterprises in PVC manufacturing, automotive and waste management sectors. They must comply with Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA). Many enterprises have also adopted the 5S Japanese working system (seiri, seiton, seiso, seiketsu, shitsukeFootnote 1), for improving the job performance of workers. Besides OSHA, catering enterprises comply with the Food Act 1983 and the Food Regulations of 1985 (Ashok 2015). Many enterprises are themselves responsible for formal or informal learning of specific workplace skills. On-the-job training through apprenticeships and hands-on learning is an important part of enterprise continuing education and training.

Green skills are relevant not only for the so-called ‘green industries’ in the context of ‘green jobs’ but for all sectors and jobs. All jobs need to develop knowledge and skills related to the environment such as efficient use of energy and waste management practices. However, several studies have highlighted the challenges to capacity-building for green jobs in Malaysia (Ahmad 2015; ILO 2014a). See Box 9.1.

Box 9.1. Challenges to capacity-building for green jobs in Malaysia

Among the challenges highlighted by Ahmad (2015) are:

  • Lack of human capital development policies to support green jobs;

  • Lack of clear initiatives to address green job agendas at the national level;

  • Lack of clear competency-based frameworks for recognising green skills and green professional or semi-professional qualifications;

  • Lack of clear national definition of competences and skills for green jobs;

  • Limited training in the field of green skills and practices at the enterprise level;

  • Mismatch between the university graduates and industry standards;

  • Lack of incentives for industry to develop a green collar workforce;

  • Limited creation of green jobs;

  • Little involvement of government, employers and trade unions to promote sustainable development;

  • Lack of a green perspective in the implementation of development projects;

  • Low awareness about green technology in the education system.

Among the challenges highlighted by ILO (2014a) are:

  • Insufficient labour market information on existing green jobs in Malaysia, although some policies have been implemented by public and private organisations in promoting green jobs;

  • Inadequate information on sectors that have the potential to create green jobs, e.g. provision of energy efficient lighting systems in buildings within the construction industry;

  • Lack of disaggregated data on different green activities, e.g. job estimates for transport versus job estimates in warehousing and communications;

  • Inadequate information on what has been implemented on the ground;

  • Little information on financing modalities for climate change;

  • Inadequate information on how short-term green projects could generate temporary green jobs.

Source: Authors’ compilation based on studies by Ahmad (2015) and ILO (2014a).

Environmental challenges in the manufacturing sectors of Malaysia

Climate change is one of the biggest threats to society and the environment (Al-Amin and Filho 2011; Abdul Rahman 2009; UNEP 2014). A survey of urban climate change in 100 cities, including in Malaysia, by Broto and Bulkeley (2013) showed that cities are key sites where climate change is being addressed. The adoption of green skills is crucial to managing a balanced lifestyle and quality human capital (Aarts and Grotenhuis 2009).

The manufacturing sectors’ expected growth in contribution to GDP from 32.7 per cent in 2012 to 41 per cent in 2020 will bring about an expected increase in employment opportunities from 59 per cent in 2010 to 62 per cent in 2020. The sectors’ contribution to exports is planned to increase from 19 per cent in 2010 to 25 per cent by 2020. The sectors also provided employment and increase in sales revenue of Malaysia from RM 438,485 million in 2000 to RM 656,441 million in 2014. The service sector, particularly the catering sector, is viewed as an important area for economic growth, fulfilling the rapidly growing demand of Malaysian society. This is likely to continue considering that the unemployment rate of 2015, at 3.17 per cent, will persist until 2030. The high demand for catering services is also attributed to the projected increase of the Malaysian population from 30 million in 2015 to 36 million by 2030. Other factors contributing to the high demand for catering services in future are the availability, affordability and convenience of catering services in the market.

As environmental issues become more acute and widespread, it is necessary to consider the challenges of sustainable development in business operations and industrial sectors. In the following sections, these challenges and issues will be discussed in relation to the automotive and catering services industry as well as the PVC manufacturing sectors.

The automotive industry

Malaysia is one of the ASEAN countries with a large and highly developed automotive sector (Fujita 1998). The automotive industry has positively affected the national economic landscape. However, the increase in production and the growth of private automobile ownership has resulted not only in vehicle waste but also in traffic congestion and air pollution (Amelia et al. 2009). It is estimated that approximately 13.6 million tons of toxic gases are being emitted from vehicles each year, damaging forests, lakes and marine life (Mohamad and Kiggundu 2007).

Several studies have pointed out that the automotive sector doing little to upgrade itself, to become internationally competitive (Wad and Govindaraju 2011) or to design constructive strategies for development (Sukitsch et al. 2015). Some of the inadequacies are consequences of a lack of capabilities in applying new technologies, marketing and a low level of involvement in global value chains. The authors recommend greening the automotive industry through the introduction of green technologies, which they argue, should be linked to the industry’s global market positioning and competitiveness.

The catering service industry

The catering industry is part of the vast development in Malaysia focused on domestic and international tourism. It is presented in both formal catering services (hotels, resorts, mid-to-upscale restaurants, centralised kitchens, catering services in hospitals, schools, and public institutions) and non-formal catering services (unregistered private caterers, food trucks, hawkers, food stalls). The demand for ready-to-eat and cooked food has increased (Ali and Abdullah 2012; Tan 2010). Today’s consumers are more conscious about environmentally friendly practices in catering services, making this sector more competitive than before (Tan and Yeap 2012; Schubert et al. 2010; Schubert 2008).

Notwithstanding these transformations, catering services are affected by the lack of proper management of food waste (Chan and Hsu 2016). The 9th Malaysia Plan estimated that about 45 per cent of future waste would consist of food and organic waste, 24 per cent of plastic, 7 per cent of paper, and 6 per cent of iron and glass, with the balance made up of other materials (Manaf et al. 2009).

In addition to waste treatment, the threat of food-borne diseases is another issue for catering services. Soon, Singh and Baines (2011) revealed that most of the reported food-borne diseases are associated with unhygienic procedures during food preparation (see also Abdul-Mutalib et al. 2015; Ministry of Health 2014; Shahrul Amri and Sarimah 2015). Shahrul Amri and Sarimah (2015) designed a food handling course that is compulsory to pass for all food handlers in the catering sector—both formal and informal. The issue has become critical with the dependence on foreign workers, the majority of whom lack academic and work skills background related to food handling.

All these concerns suggest the need to adopt sustainable waste management and resource efficiency strategies, as well as green practices and green skills, as the preferred business model in catering services.

PVC manufacturing

PVC ranks third in both global plastic output and consumption. Over 33 million tons of PVC are produced each year and that figure is increasing annually as PVC production requires less petroleum than many other polymers (around 57 per cent of PVC's mass is chlorine) (Martins et al. 2009). The manufacturing sector actively uses PVC in manufacturing products because it is strong, resistant to oil and chemicals, sunlight, weathering and heat.

One of the high-tech initiatives in Malaysia, the Statistical Process Control (SPC), is targeting an improvement of quality production (improved reliability and quality control of product, system and management) that requires high technology (hardware, software, networking and security) (Abdul Rahman 2009).

However, the high cost of using these novel alternative practices is a major drawback. Another challenge for the PVC manufacturing industry is the recognition that PVC parts in various products are not biodegradable or degradable, which has many drawbacks for the environment. The production and incineration of PVC both produce a set of toxic and deadly substances called dioxins, which have harmful effects on human health and animals alike (North and Halden 2013). Also, PVC manufacturing has already been affected by the commitment made by the government of Malaysia to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) by up to 40 per cent in terms of emission intensity relative to gross domestic product (GDP) by the year 2020 compared to 2005 (ILO 2014a).

The national response to environmental challenges

Green skills have been widely introduced by the government through various policies, acts, legislations and rules based on industry sectors. As Box 9.2 illustrates, formal responses to environmental challenges have been imposed over the years on every sector by means of national policies and legislation on environmental regulation.

Box 9.2. National response to environmental challenges

  • National Green Technology Policy (NGTP) ensures that all industry sectors in Malaysia pay attention to the importance of green technology in their respective industry sectors.

  • The Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water promotes research and development of green technologies both in rural and urban areas).

  • The Environmental Quality Act was promulgated in 1974.

  • The Department of Environment was established under the Ministry of Science, Technology & Environment, Malaysia to administer and enforce, amongst other environmental laws and regulations, the Environmental Quality Act, 1974 (Amendments 1985, 1996) and Section IV of the Economic Exclusive Zone Act, 1984 (International Green Purchasing Network 2003).

  • Several policies were initiated based on sustainable development goals (Hezri 2011):

    1. (a)

      The National Environmental Policy;

    2. (b)

      The National Biodiversity Policy;

    3. (c)

      The National Climate Change Policy.

  • The United Nations Development Plan country programmes for 2006, aligned to the 9th Malaysia Plan (2006–2010), had five elements for enhancing the capacity of the economy (UNDP 2016):

    1. (a)

      Escalating economy in the value chain;

    2. (b)

      Improving knowledge and innovation;

    3. (c)

      Continuously addressing socio-economic inequalities;

    4. (d)

      Improving quality and sustainability;

    5. (e)

      Reinforcing institutional and implementation capacity.

  • The Department of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment has sponsored several new laws in 2010 dealing with environmental degradation:

    1. (a)

      Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978 P.U (A) 280;

    2. (b)

      Stack Gas Emission Standards from Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978;

    3. (c)

      Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (Ambient Standards);

    4. (d)

      Environmental Quality (Sewage) Regulations 2009 (PU (A) 432.

Source: Author, based on Malaysian policies, legislations and programmes

How is industry addressing environmental challenges?

From a global perspective, Malaysia has made considerable headway in addressing environmental issues. Global sustainability regulations have prompted industries to develop effective and efficient supply chain management. The concept of green purchasing or green procurement was introduced to improve awareness regarding the promotion of green practices in local manufacturing and production industries, especially small- and medium-sized industries (SMIs) (International Green Purchasing Network 2003). The concept of green marketing is used to educate consumers on eco-brand, eco-label and environmental advertisement (Rahbar and Wahid 2011).

However, industry sectors have developed their own specific ways of combatting environmental problems as well as improving economic and environmental performance. Many of these methods for addressing environmental challenges are recommendations emerging from research studies.

The automotive industry

According to studies undertaken by Ogushi and Kandlikar (2005) and Amelia et al. (2009), the automotive industry should recycle and reuse automotive components such as clutches, brake shoes, engine blocks, starters, alternators, water pumps and carburettors. Reutilisation of these waste automotive components could ameliorate the disposal problem and reduce the cost of waste disposal. Studies have also suggested waste management policies for end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) (Mamet et al. 2016; Ahmed et al. 2014).

Catering services

The promotion of green skills in the catering industry is reflected in several ethical principles integrated with good food preparation practices (food hygiene and safety). The product certification programme eco-labelling scheme launched by the Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia (SIRIM) provides information to consumers and identifies environmental products and their specifications. The SIRIM QAS International further offers Management System Certification on food and consumer product manufacturing in the following areas:

  • ISO 9001 Quality management system; HACCP (Hazard analysis critical control point);

  • ISO 22000 Food safety management system;

  • ISO 28000 Supply chain security management system;

  • MS 1514 Good manufacturing practice (GMP);

  • ISO 14001 Environmental management system;

  • Clean development mechanism (CDM) (SIRIM QAS International).

In addition to the established Food Act 1983 and Food Regulations 1985, the Food Safety and Quality Division, the Ministry of Health Malaysia has approved several guidelines, including:

  • Guidelines for food premises registration, food safety in the kitchen of the residential institution, cleanliness of restaurants and food premises;

  • A handbook for food premises registration;

  • A Guideline on accreditation scheme for food handlers training program;

  • A manual giving the procedures of accreditation of training programmes for food handlers;

  • Guidelines dealing with mass catering and inflight catering.

PVC manufacturing

One of the initiatives to complement the progressive development of PVC manufacturing is the set of industry Responsible Care programmes introduced by the Chemical Industries Council of Malaysia (CCIM). The programme aims to encourage responsible practices among industry members to protect the environment and community well-being. The Department of Environment (DOE) under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) safeguards community, workplace and environment through its ISO 14001 certified green policy practices, ISO 9001 certified Good Product Quality in Manufacturing Practices, and it is ASTM International which has worldwide international standards for PVC materials and products (Lee et al. 2015).

Rationale: Identifying the need for including green skills in RVA mechanisms

The importance of the recognition of green skills in enterprises and on-the-job settings

Recognition mechanisms embedded in workplace training programmes can help to develop the knowledge and skills required for the green economy. Studies from Malaysia show that learning transfer depends on designing training in collaboration with industry (Awasthy et al. 2020; Naharuddin and Sadegi 2013). Malaysia’s competency-based training through its National Modular Certificate programmes exposes potential participants to the world of work (Human Resources 2013; Abdul Rahman et al. 2015, 2016). Further, the Department of Skills and Development under the Ministry of Human Resources has established the National Occupational Skill Standards (NOSS) to define the employment and essential competency levels to be fulfilled by employees in enterprises and industries.

In formal training, the importance of recognising competences gained through experiential learning and the adaptation to the work environment (Emmerling and Boyatzis 2012) is increasingly acknowledged. As Hammond et al. (2020) note, the acquisition of competences requires more than just an accumulation of factual knowledge. Thus, recognition mechanisms need to be able to recognise a repertoire of actions, and skills recognition necessary for the greening of jobs must be done holistically and continuously.

The importance of motivation for green practices in enterprise beyond governmental enforcement

Environmental sustainability in the working environment is necessary to reduce the level of pollution and waste caused by enterprises/ industries. Among the programmes undertaken by the Malaysian government to deal with waste management are ‘waste separation at source’ and ‘technology for the waste to energy initiatives at industry’. The Solid Waste and Public Cleanliness Management Act 2007 provides deals with issues related to public cleanliness and proper hygiene (Jereme et al. 2015). Alongside these initiatives, the government has launched a massive education and public awareness campaign to educate the public on the government’s waste-segregation programmes. Only 15 per cent of Malaysians practice waste recycling. The Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government (Jereme et al. 2015) highlights the alarmingly low rate of waste recycling in Malaysia.

Several studies have been conducted to understand the current green practices related to environmental sustainability carried out in Malaysia’s small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Alexander (2018) found that the adoption of green information technology (IT) among (SMEs) enables enterprises to use existing resources in a sustainable manner, both in climate protection and resource efficiency. Abdullah et al. (2015) found that SMEs, especially in the manufacturing sector, were to some extent adopting green practices, green processes, green products and green systems that were suited to their work environment. Some were also engaging in green practices that were economically beneficial for their enterprises. However, it was found that enterprises still need more motivation to adopt green practices as a supplement to consumers’ demands and law enforcement by the Malaysian government (Ramakrishnan et al. 2015).

The importance of a competency-based approach in formal and non-formal TVET

According to Mulder et al. (2006), competency-based training and learning inter-mingled with other innovations like the introduction of self-managed learning, the validation of prior learning, and new theories of learning, such as authentic learning, social constructivism and knowledge construction, are crucial for human capital development, including green human capital. The competence-based approach to green skills is important for promoting green practices because it emphasises the importance of the actual capacities of individuals versus knowledge and skills that are merely officially required. However, several authors (Martinez and Lord 2012; Collins 2009; Selvi 2019) argue that competences must be continuously improved through competency-based training and skills development, and workers must take on ‘learning-to-learn skills’ that support lifelong learning; individuals must learn them; and they must be transferable, generic, aligned to job performance and measurable.

The importance of industries taking responsibility to make workers aware of ways to reduce and rectify environmental degradation

Workers must be made aware of how they can contribute to the practice of minimising the pollution caused by their industry. Papargyropoulou et al. (2014) found that waste from the food service sectors was the highest of any business sector. They made several suggestions to improve waste management practices in the industry. For instance, they encouraged workers in the workplace to segregate solid waste in the workplace and to sort the waste into the various types of recyclable forms before disposing the material into separate designated containers.

The importance of raising awareness and promoting positive attitudes towards environmental protection

The Malaysian government has implemented several national environmental campaigns and activities. To achieve better waste management, the 3R concept (reuse, reduce, recycle) has been effectively implemented in order to keep the production of waste to a level that can be absorbed by present landfill facilities. Currently, the facilities have a limited handling capacity of approximately 1,000 tons of waste per day, thus prompting effective actions to ensure a sustainable level of waste in the country (Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government, 2015). It goes to show that awareness campaigns must go hand in hand with finding practical solutions to problems of environmental protection.

2 Terminology and Definitions

Conceptualisation of green skills

Several studies have drawn attention to the importance of green skills. One qualitative study by Hamid et al. (2016) explored the perspectives of employers and academics about the meaning of green skills. Interviews with ten industry personnel and seven academics from a university department for TVET indicated that both groups were knowledgeable about environmental sustainability. However, they tended to understand green skills as green practice (Hamid et al. 2016). More specifically, while ‘green skills’ referred to the ability to perform activities which lead to a cleaner environment and reduced pollution, the term ‘green practices’ included activities and tasks such as recycling, reusing and reducing the environmental risks, as well as enhancing energy and resource efficiency and preventing loss of biodiversity.

Several authors understand green skills as soft skills (e.g. Buntat and Othman 2012) and green competences (see Subramanian et al. 2015) complementing green jobs and green practices.

Another interpretation of green skills is their association with green technology with the goal of reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities, carbon emissions and pollution as well as enhancing energy and resource efficiencies and increasing biodiversity (Ramlee and Shuhada 2014). However, for green technologies to be successful, employees must have generic green skills (Hamid et al. 2016). The application of green technologies is dependent upon green skills which are practised in almost all industry sectors (formal and non-formal), although not to the same extent in all enterprises and contexts. This study follows interpretation of green skills defined in Chap. 1.

The status of RVA in relation to learning outcomes-based standards in the MQF

The process of recognition, validation and accreditation (RVA) in Malaysia is undertaken in relation to learning outcomes-based standards of the Malaysian Qualifications Framework (MQF). The MQF is an instrument that:

  • Develops and classifies qualifications based on a set of criteria that is agreed nationally and at par with international standards;

  • Clarifies the earned academic levels, learning outcomes of study areas and credits earned based on student academic load;

  • Provides education pathways that link qualifications enabling individuals to progress into higher education through credit accumulation or transfer as well as recognition of prior learning, competences and work experience regardless of when, how and where they are acquired—through formal, non-formal or informal learning;

  • Covers skills training and technical, vocational education and training (TVET) and higher education;

  • Is designed as a unified system of qualifications serving as a national reference point for all educational and training institutions, including colleges, universities, vocational institutions, professional bodies and other higher education institutions in the public and private sectors, as well as workplace training and lifelong learning;

  • Includes the Malaysian Skills Certification System consisting of the five-tiered skill qualifications based on the National Occupational Skills Standards.

The MQF consists of nine learning domains: knowledge, practical skills, communication skills, critical thinking and problem-solving skills, social skills and responsibility, continuous learning and information management skills, management and entrepreneurial skills, professionalism, ethics and morals, leadership and teamwork skills. Only programmes that comply with the learning outcomes approach can get accreditation from the MQA. Seen from the green skills perspective, while the first two learning outcomes can be categorised as ‘job-specific green technical skills’, the other nine domains could be said to be ‘green generic skills’.

The human Resource Development Fund (RDF) has been specially set up to fund employees’ enterprise training.

3 Methodology of Primary Data Collection

This study is about skills recognition for improving environmental and sustainable development in both formal and informal micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) of the manufacturing sector (PVC manufacturing) and two service sectors (automotive and catering). It focuses on environmental policies and regulations, green practices, green skills, green skills requirements, recognition of prior learning, and workplace training in relation to green skills.

It adopted a qualitative case study approach to create an in-depth understanding of the implementation of green skills in these sectors and follows the overall methodology stated in Chap. 1. This section analyses the results based on interviews with staff from five enterprises, two in the automotive sector, two in catering services and one in PVC manufacturing. Both formal and informal enterprises were interviewed.

The selection of the study sample through purposive and convenience sampling techniques was based on their willingness to participate in the study. Due to difficulties in getting involvement from the enterprise of all industry sectors only one employer of a formal enterprise in PVC manufacturing, two employers (one from a formal enterprise and one from an informal enterprise) from the automotive service sector and five employers (three from formal enterprise and two from informal enterprise) from the catering industry were able to be interviewed to access the related data. The owner and/or manager of the enterprise determined the participants to be interviewed (see Table 9.1).

Table 9.1 Selection of the enterprise and number of employers and employees interviewed
Full size table

Data were collected through different sources, mainly based on interviews and supported by direct observations and documentary evidence to illustrate each sector in-depth before conclusions were drawn as to whether the phenomenon under study had been accurately measured. Data triangulation was used to merge study results from formal and non-formal enterprises in the same sector to enrich the study result before drawing conclusions.

4 Results and Discussion

Connecting macro-level environmentally friendly needs to local needs

Very often macro-level needs are not connected to local demands for green skills and practices at the enterprise level. The study found that while challenges and solutions are identified at the national level, no clear initiatives have yet been undertaken to address green job agendas at the enterprise level.

Linking enterprise green skills development with standard-setting institutions and agencies

Enterprises are able to operationalise green practices and green skills by linking with standard-setting agencies and institutions, many of which are operating under Malaysian ministries and departments. For example, the Malaysian Green Technology Corporation (GreenTech Malaysia) under the Ministry of Energy acts as a global hub for green technology with the aim of transforming the country into a green community by 2030. Green technologies are actively introduced in several industry sectors/ enterprises in the context of the National Green Technology Policy. The Malaysian Green Foundation and the Green Technology Financing Scheme work closely with enterprises to promote green skills. The green industry Virtual Centre under the Department of Environment Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment encourages small and medium enterprises to adopt cleaner production methods to reduce carbon footprints. Enterprises dealing with refrigeration and air conditioning in cars undertake an assessment of work experience certification of green skills particularly in the 3Rs, The national wages productivity programme promotes green practices and green workplaces. Enterprises need to familiarise with the MQF in relation to which robust assessment and certification of green skills can be undertaken. Enterprises increasingly pay attention to the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 1994.

Addressing the issue of green skills in enterprises

Staff were asked how they addressed the issue of green practices and green skills in their enterprises. They responded by highlighting the importance of:

  • Designing personalised lifelong learning programmes for employees after their recruitment;

  • Promoting awareness and disseminating green skills information through media;

  • Practising green skills in the execution of job tasks during working hours as well as carrying out green activities outside work;

  • Encouraging employers to nurture green skills in enterprises; green skills are not necessarily obtained only from education and training system;

  • All stakeholders (employer, employees, suppliers and canteen operators) shoulder the responsibility to comply with green policies and regulations;

  • Conducting special programmes in workplaces to manage resource allocations more effectively and efficiently without comprising the product and service quality;

  • Promoting awareness-raising campaigns, occupational hygiene and safety as well as the greening of jobs;

  • Embedding green skills in training programmes for new workers during the first few weeks e.g. exposing them to green work processes, showing them ways to keep the premises clean and healthy, and encouraging them to plant trees and take up gardening as well as other cleaning activities during the weekend.

Respondents mentioned that green skills were practised in almost all industry sectors (formal and non-formal). In some sectors, such as catering, green practices and green skills were limited and inadequate. Respondents told us that this was due to the many challenges catering services faced. Most of the workers in the catering sector were not familiar with the notion of green skills. Compared to the catering enterprises, PVC manufacturing and automotive enterprises were more likely to practice green skills, keep documentation, and have some understanding about RVA frameworks.

Providing comprehensive training for workers on green practices

Account should be taken not only of training needs from a training policy perspective but also, from the perspectives of those involved in enterprises at all levels, from the technical workforce to top management through green purchasing, green processing, green production, green marketing, green packaging and green management.

While formal recognition, a process of granting official status through (awards and degrees) skills and competences, is invaluable, it is equally important to focus on social recognition, meaning the acceptance and ownership by enterprise-based stakeholders in the implementation of green skills and green practices. The social acceptance of stakeholders, their interest and stakes in green skills, their understanding of green skills and their role in greening the economy are crucial for the sustainability of green skills practices.

The importance of the value chain concept in the promotion of green practices

An interview with a senior middle-ranking officer at a leading technological plant of a Japanese company revealed that the company implements green practices widely. Such practices do not only involve employees but also suppliers and vendors. Raw material suppliers are required to turn off their vehicle engine at the loading bay while downloading or uploading goods. This mandatory rule ensures the prevention of carbon dioxide emissions from vehicle exhausts.

The growing importance of ICTs as a generic green skill

One of many ways to minimise carbon footprint at the enterprise was by setting up computers attached to printers to enable employees to check their monthly payments—the employer no longer issued a printed pay sheet to their employees. This way they saved paper. Besides promoting a clean environment, they also contributed to making employees computer literate (one of the generic green skills in green technology industries is ICT competency).

Core skills are developed through in enterprise orientation training of new workers

An interview with a senior middle-ranking officer from a leading technological plant of a Japanese company based in Batu Pahat, Johor, revealed that new workers were given a week’s orientation, where they were exposed not only to work procedures but also practices on how to keep premises clean and healthy, including rules on how to discard leftover food into the waste bin and how to clean the premises during weekends. Once in a month, the employer conducted cooperative activities whereby employees were encouraged to plant a tree and do gardening. This was in line with the International Labour Organization’s position on ‘core generic skills’ or ‘sustainability skills’ such as environmental awareness and willingness to learn about sustainable development (ILO 2011). Although job-specific skills are key factors in productivity and economic growth (Watch 2010), core generic green skills complement them and are necessary to improve living standards through a healthy environment.

Green practices inculcated through job tasks within enterprises

Green skills are not acquired only through education and training; they can be developed, monitored and nurtured by employers. According to a middle-ranking officer, applicants’ academic qualifications only enable them to come for an interview, it is their attitudes and values that determine whether they get the job they applied for. It reveals the emphasis placed on the importance of all stakeholders taking up roles and responsibilities to enforce compliance with environmentally green practices.

Changing negative attitudes, behaviour, skills and knowledge into environmentally friendly Green skills and green practices

The most challenging aspect in catering enterprises was the negative attitude of the staff. They generally lacked knowledge and skills in handling food. Another challenge was the lack of support of human resource development policies in enterprises to support the recognition of green jobs and green skills.

5 Conclusions and Recommendations

The application of green skills in enterprises requires the support of all stakeholders—the industries, the government and the community at large—as only in this way can the ‘silo effects’ separating government agencies, the business sector, civil society and academia be overcome (Hezri 2011).

Sustainable development requires not only skills development programmes but also demand-related mechanisms for recognising skills in both formal and informal enterprises.

While industries are in line with government action plans for greening TVET, Malaysian communities including employers and employees and workers in micro, medium and small enterprises need more education on the conceptualisation of green skills relating to ethical principles, values and attitudes, hygiene and safety, environmental awareness as well as specific green skills related to occupational tasks.

The following recommendations for including green skills in RVA emerged from the study. Based on the local needs assessment among participating enterprises the following interventions need attention: providing incentives for green collar workers in enterprises; developing a workforce with the required skills; creating green jobs; creating awareness among companies about green technology; enforcing compliance with laws such as those related to food safety and food preparation at the level of companies.

It is suggested that before green skills can be subject to the process of RVA, it is necessary for stakeholders to show an interest in green practices and green skills and show ownership and acceptance through their active support of green practices. For example:

  • Executives and managers must reflect environmental regulations in their recruitment, training and marketing strategies;

  • Supervisors must define, identify and reorient green skills for environmentally friendly green practices in the conduct of job tasks;

  • Human resources managers must develop training programmes consisting of green skills;

  • Employees must get real benefits in terms of decent jobs, high wages, promotions or further education and training opportunities through the recognition of their green skills.

  • Trade unions must ensure that workers gain benefits through training and recognition programmes.

  • Occupational associations must promote green jobs in their respective sectors.

  • Human Resource Departments/personnel of enterprises need to use a clear competency matrix such as the Malaysia Skills Certificate system based on the National Occupational Skill Standard (NOSS). This framework includes recognition in relation to the Malaysian Skills Certificate (MSC) Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3; Malaysian Skills Diploma (MSD) Level 4 and Malaysian Skills Advanced Diploma (MSAD) Level 5.