Keywords

1 Introduction

In 2013, the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan approved a decree on the concept of transition to a ‘green’ economy. Kazakhstan subsequently took steps to operationalise the concept of the ‘green economy’ to initiate a transition towards an economy of improved human welfare and a higher quality of life for all citizens.

This policy was also reflected in the theme of Kazakhstan’s recent EXPO-2017, entitled ‘Energy of the Future’, which also featured the partnership programme ‘Green Bridge’ to promote sustainable development in Central Asia and other regions of the world. The realisation of the so-called green economy is expected to position Kazakhstan as one of the 30 developed countries in the world. The main priorities for this transition to a ‘green economy’ are to:

  • Increase efficient use of resources and their management (water, land, biological and others);

  • Modernise existing infrastructure and to construct new infrastructure;

  • Create wealth and ensure environmental improvement;

  • Increase national security, including water-supply security (Republic of Kazakhstan 2013).

This chapter examines a number of aspects that are essential for implementation of this vision. It particularly focusses on the interpretation of green skills and green practices at MSMEs in catering, automotive and waste management sectors. Considering the purpose of the regional study, it further analyses the status of RVA and the ways green skills can be included in their mechanisms.

Environmental challenges in Kazakhstan industry

Environmental challenges that the country is facing are closely related to the ways industries are operating. For the three sectors examined by this study, the set of challenges are different. In the automotive industry of Kazakhstan, environmental problems are predominantly related to the poor quality of fuel, the lack of exhaust filters, ‘aging’ of vehicles and their poor maintenance. In addition, the number of cars in the cities is increasing. The main source of air pollution in the cities of Kazakhstan is caused by vehicle exhaust gases. In Almaty, up to 90% of harmful substances in the air originates from vehicle emissions, accounting for up to 190,000 tonnes of harmful substances in the atmosphere (Diti 2016).

In Kazakhstan, most catering companies are small enterprises, ranging from fast food outlets to elite luxurious restaurants; their services are in high demand among different consumer groups. The main problem for catering companies is the quality of food and beverages they use for cooking and providing services. Organic food is not widely available and food safety is an issue. There are no state standards for organic or eco-food in Kazakhstan. In addition, its production requires more resources and time, which affects the price, so only a limited number of consumers are able to afford it compared to conventional products (ELIM (ИMCИ) 2016).

For the waste management sector, environmental challenges are closely related to the increasing danger associated with landfills where collected waste is dumped. Over the recent years, its volume has increased as has its emissions. Furthermore, this sector is characterised by:

  • An underdeveloped waste collection system, including the separate collection of municipal solid waste (MSW);

  • Lack of waste treatment before landfill dumping over almost the entire territory of the republic;

  • The small volume of waste recycling and processing;

  • Existing MSW disposal landfills non-compliance with health and safety regulations.

In general, the involvement of citizens in discussions of environmental issues is limited, and current legislation does not allow local administrations to make decisions that can minimise harmful impact on the environment.

Policy and legislation related to environmental protection and greening of the economy in the Republic of Kazakhstan

Development of state policy on environmental protection started from April 1996, when the President of the Republic Kazakhstan approved the ‘Environmental Security Concept’. Since then a number of further major developments have occurred that have established a legislative framework for environmental protection. In 2002, for example, the ‘Law on Air Protection’ was adopted. Further improvements in legislation were undertaken to match environmental legislation in developed countries. The republic of Kazakhstan signed 19 international conventions and developed plans for their realisation. A system of environmental expertise, permit issuing, control and inspection was established (Republic of Kazakhstan 2003). In 2007, the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan was put in place (Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan 2007).

In 2010, Kazakhstan put forward the so-called Astana initiative, ‘Green Bridge’, supported by participants of the sixth Asia-Pacific Ministerial Conference (Astana, 27 September–2 October 2010). At this conference, the concept of a green economy (Green Growth) was adopted as a tool for sustainable development in Kazakhstan. It was later developed into the Partner Programme Green Bridge for 2011–2020 and supported by the UN Assembly in September 2011.

In 2012, the UN Conference on Sustainable Development also known as ‘Rio + 20’ was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. At the conference, the Minister of Environmental Protection from Kazakhstan presented Kazakhstan’s Green Bridge programme as well as the Global Energy-Ecological Strategy wherein joint actions and practical mechanisms to facilitate the transition to a green economy through development of partnerships with green businesses supported by green technologies and investments were proposed. The initiative was supported by The World Summit.

In the 2013 President’s address ‘Kazakhstan-2050’ a strategy of transition to a green way of development was defined as the national priority. The President’s Decree approved the Concept of Transition of the Republic of Kazakhstan to a green economy (hereinafter the Concept) (Decree No 577 of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan 2013).

The Concept outlines the following approaches to the transition to a green economy:

  • Sustainable use of water resources;

  • Sustainable development of productive agriculture;

  • Increase in energy saving and energy efficiency;

  • Development of electric power industry;

  • Waste management systems;

  • Reduction of air pollution;

  • Conservation and effective management of ecosystems.

It was expected that such measures would contribute towards changes in behaviour patterns and increased use of green practices such as environmental friendly heating and cooling systems, waste utilisation and water use.

Green skills development in a formal educational setting

The Concept for Transition of the Republic of Kazakhstan to a Green Economy notes the importance of ensuring required green skills for the labour market particularly through the training of engineers, technicians and managers. These clearly defined targets require new approaches to education, so that the concept of the green economy can be operationalised.

The results of the survey conducted by the authors with first-year graduate students in a number Kazakhstan universities showed that while students demonstrated a high level of environmental knowledge, they lacked green skills or ecological competences. The primary reason for this is related to a tradition of theory-based curriculum development. The absence in Kazakhstan universities of teaching materials specifically designed for the development and promotion of green skills, in particular in the fields of study that are in demand for the development of a green economy, such as engineers, designers and scientists, also has a negative impact.

This study demonstrates that formal education in Kazakhstan tends to privilege factual knowledge among students rather than giving students opportunities to apply their knowledge. The content of Kazakh educational programmes contributes little towards the development of ecological behaviour for everyday life and work. A concern identified through this study was related to green skills development among students. The questionnaire aimed to understand what green skills are better developed in students. It was found that their ability to analyse information on ecological issues independently, to work with, classify, synthesise, transform, store and transmit this information is better developed than the ability to use this information in everyday life or analyse contemporary environmental problems in the country. University students showed better results in analysing and storing information on ecological issues, conceiving green skills from a standpoint of searching for ecological information and making ethical and moral judgments.

The above results highlight issues in developing green skills through a formal educational setting. Therefore, the role of work-based learning for green skills development and inclusion of green skills in RVA become increasingly important. In this context, the results of the study conducted at the enterprises and presented below are of particular importance as they lead to an understanding of the potential for recognising green skills acquired via non-formal education (continuing education and training after completion of formal educational programmes) and informal education (in workplaces). Both non-formal and informal learning in Kazakhstan are of growing importance. For example, all newly recruited employees in large enterprises (in the formal economic sector) undergo a mandatory briefing on safety, which implicitly includes knowledge of environmental safety regulations. Occasionally this also applies to small enterprises, in both formal and informal economic sectors.

Environmental education and training will therefore become extremely important for the Republic of Kazakhstan’s transition to a green economy. At a policy level importance attributed to the issue is reflected by the inclusion of environmental education and training in Kazakhstan’s long-term development programme—Strategy 2030.

However, beyond the existing learning infrastructure, environmental education and training should simultaneously be improved in various industry sectors and enterprises to address environmental problems and challenges in Kazakhstan.

2 Terminology and Definitions

This study looks at green skills in terms of practices aimed at reducing energy consumption, protecting ecosystems and biodiversity and minimising emissions and waste. In that regard, well-developed green skills provide a firm basis for the development of environmental or ecological competences (alongside with environmental knowledge and social and professionally significant qualities of a person).

This definition draws on an analysis of international studies and studies undertaken in Kazakhstan related to green skills and ecological competences, allowing us to conclude that the idea of ecological competence is widely accepted and characterised by interdisciplinary and socio-cultural understanding. Environmental competences entail knowledge about environment as well as the practical skills needed to solve environmental issues. Thus, the structural components of the ecological competences include environmental knowledge, environmental skills, as well as socially and professionally significant qualities that enable individuals to be engaged in activities focussed on the harmonisation of relationships between people–society–nature.

The starting point for the definition of green skills is the concept of the green economy. UNEP defines the green economy as an economy that improves the welfare of people and provides social justice, while significantly reducing environmental risks and environmental depletion (UNEP 2012).

Moreover, research is increasingly adopting the term green in relation to workplaces. The UN defines green workplaces as sectors that minimise emissions of pollution and waste. In international publications, the terms green workplaces and green skills are used almost interchangeably. However, their exact meaning often depends on the context of their use. The International Labour Organization (ILO), for example, defines green workplaces as any sector that has a negative environmental impact below the average rate (ILC, 2013 cited in OECD 2015).

In the reports of the European Centre for Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP 2012), green skills are defined as knowledge, skills, values and attitudes necessary for life, development and sustainability in terms of the effective provision of society’s resources. In a more specific context, green skills can be understood as skills necessary for all economic sectors that can also allow to deal with climate change.

In Kazakhstan, the National Qualifications System (NQS) incorporates four main elements:

  • National Qualifications Framework (NQF);

  • Sectoral Qualifications Framework (SQF);

  • Occupational Standards (OS);

  • Assessment of professional qualifications.

While all four elements of Kazakhstan’s NQS are inter-related, the backbone of the system is the NQF. This is designed as a unified system that links learning outcomes from different sectors—enterprises, professional qualifications and diplomas, as well as general and vocational education.

NQF includes a description of eight qualification levels, which is similar to the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). While all eight qualification levels under the NQF correspond to levels in the general and vocational education system, it is not strictly necessary to have a formal (school, college, university) education to obtain a qualification. It is possible to gain a qualification through non-formal or informal (unintended or self-directed) learning outside school, college, university or practical experience at the workplace. The form of learning known as dual education programmes (simultaneous education through formal education and at enterprise) has received a wide recognition in Kazakhstan.

Furthermore, NQF also forms the basis of the SQF that is based on occupational standards (OS). They respond to changing technologies and take into account regional and local labour market realities.

The fourth and last NQS element is directly linked to the qualifications assessment system, which means that qualifications can also be awarded through assessment processes in both the academic world and the world of work. This is possible when outcomes from formal, non-formal and informal learning are recognised through mechanisms of recognition, validation and accreditation (RVA) or prior learning assessment and recognition. One of the purposes of recognising prior learning results is the promotion of personal and career development. While many large enterprises have their own methods for assessing employee competences, the situation is different in small and medium-sized enterprises.

In Kazakhstan, as in all the participating countries/territories in this study, the recognition of green skills is not appropriately reflected in the NQS. However, the development of sectoral qualifications is a good starting point for including green skills in descriptors of NQF qualification levels. Through such an inclusion, attention can be drawn to green skills. NQFs are also an important reference point for the development of education programmes based on sectoral occupational qualification.

In addition, occupational standards in SQF must be used to design learning outcomes based on educational programmes with the compulsory participation of employers.

NQF linked to RVA mechanisms can be one of the most effective mechanisms for the inclusion of green skills into recognition system of qualifications, regardless of the ways the learning and education are acquired.

3 Methodology of Primary Data Collection

This study followed the overall approach developed for the project as stated in Chap. 1 of this book. With regard to green skills recognition in MSMEs in Kazakhstan, the research was conducted in twelve enterprises with the help of Atameken, the National Chamber of Entrepreneurs. Six enterprises were from the formal sector regulated by state legislation, and six from the informal sector. Two formal and two informal enterprises were visited from each of the respective sectors studied: catering, automotive and waste management,

4 Results and Discussion

Across the six formal enterprises, the average number of employees was 26. Twenty per cent of employees completed their education at secondary level, 32% had technical and vocational education and 47% had higher education qualifications. The automotive service enterprises had the largest share of employees with higher education, while catering enterprises had employees who had mostly completed only secondary education and lacked vocational education and training.

A slightly different picture emerged from the six enterprises in the informal sector. Here the proportion of employees with higher education qualifications was very low, 12%.

All respondents from the 12 enterprises stated that their enterprises follow state regulatory policy in the field of environmental protection and mentioned the departments responsible for setting rules and policy regulations. However, they found it difficult to recall these rules: only 11.3% of respondents named more than ten rules; only 29.6% identified more than seven. The rules mentioned generally related to the preparation of quarterly reports on dangerous waste, and the control of compliance with industry standards.

Respondents from all enterprises—formal and informal—understood green skills as respect for the environment, applied in various manners from personal use of natural resources to large-scale relationships between humanity and the biosphere. They saw green skills from several perspectives, such as intra-personal skills, technical skills and inter-personal skills. Their broad understanding of green skills was related to the implementation of ideas of conservation for sustainable development. Another notion that all respondents referred to when talking about green skills in enterprises was the use of environmentally safe operations. This included compliance with standards of waste management, use of safe detergents in the catering sector, use of modern technologies in the automotive sector as well as regular cleaning of premises to meet hygiene requirements.

On the question of environmentally safe operation methods at work respondents identified both knowledge of laws and regulations, occupational safety and compliance requirements to various standards and skills. The list of required skills is broader than the list of knowledge and included an ability to control dangerous situations, to apply necessary measures to both standard and non-standard situations, an ability to audit workplaces, technological procedures and operations, to operate equipment and to comply with environmental safety requirements.

Only 3% of the respondents from the waste management sector said that their enterprise had a full-time responsible person for monitoring green practices such as waste and water management, renewable energy, energy efficiency, pollution minimisation etc. However, an overwhelming majority of respondents from enterprises in the formal sector indicated that the above functions were usually assigned to deputy heads.

Categories such as attitudes and behaviour were more difficult for respondents to understand. This indicated the lack of a broader understanding of green skills among most respondents. Respondents rarely went beyond internal requirements for environmental safety at the workplace in describing green skills. They seldom referred to the aspects of environmental protection in relation to the external environment.

Table 8.1 indicates the understanding of green skills in relation to knowledge, skills and attitudes and behaviour across all enterprises.

Table 8.1 Understanding of green skills
Full size table

Table 8.1 shows that green skills are understood in a narrow sense; respondents did not refer to the broader social context. Green skills are interpreted as skills required for job-specific professional occupations. This was reflected in the importance attached to qualifications (education certificate and work experience relevant to position) when recruiting potential employees for the formal sector. In the informal sector, heads of enterprises interviewed candidates on general issues during the recruitment process, thus no assessments of green skills have been conducted.

For all enterprises recognition of prior learning include verifying diplomas of education, job interviews, verifying training course and seminar certificates. Green skills can be considered in the context of ecological safety. Among methods used to evaluate green skills, respondents mentioned workbooks in which safety training at the workplace was recorded.

Most employees acquired their green skills through self-learning/non-formal learning or initial vocational education and training.

All enterprises had some form of staff training, usually by the staff responsible for compliance with safety rules. The main goal of this training is to increase efficiency as well as the motivation and responsibility of employees. These elements result in real benefits for the staff in terms of bonuses, salary increases, career development, etc.

In addition to interviews, observation sheets developed for this study (see Chap. 1) were filled in and results are presented in Table 8.2, which presents a record of existing environmentally friendly practices at the enterprises, showing variations across sectors and between formal and informal sectors.

Table 8.2 Analysis of the level of environmentally friendly practices at enterprises in the formal and informal sectors (in percentages)
Full size table

  • Recognise and report on a potential environmental threat was the area across all sectors that was fully addressed by 25–50% of the formal enterprises (and by 25% of informal automotive enterprises).

  • Environmentally friendly activities were best manifested through Following environmental workplace practices and Maintaining environmental records in the formal catering sector.

  • The formal automotive sector has a better record of Contributing to improved environmental work practices than other sectors.

  • Informal automotive enterprises performed better across the first three categories compared to all other informal sectors.

  • Overall, the level of practice is lower in informal sector enterprises in almost all aspects; all informal enterprises do not undertake Maintaining environmental records; however, they try to Recognise and report on a potential environmental threat at the workplace.

5 Conclusions and Recommendations

At the national level, there is full commitment to the transition to a green economy. The Ministry of Environmental Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan has announced the creation of 400,000–600,000 green workplaces in Kazakhstan by 2030, and by 2050 the country will receive an additional 3% GDP growth for growth from transition to a new model of green development. It is also proposed worker qualifications standards will take green skills into account.

The issue of revising technical and vocational education curricula in the context of a transition to a green economy is particularly relevant considering the criticism of Kazakhstan’s slow response in addressing green professional skills through TVET system (as noted at the Asian Development Bank forum). It is particularly important to train specialists with green skills for economic sectors which play a major role in food supply (agriculture, supply of freshwater, forestry), renewable energy sources, construction and transport. It is also necessary to work on teacher training to develop green competences among students and to develop educational content that takes into account the new challenges of a green economy.

It is clear that the formal education system pays insufficient attention to questions of environmentally sound practices. In educational programmes at schools and universities, environmental education is limited to competences that students develop through the study of individual subjects; extra-curricular activities are entirely related to the enthusiasm of academic staff; and so, green skills development in formal education is fragmented and unsystematic. Notwithstanding this criticism, it needs to be acknowledged that there are some important green initiatives in formal education, such as Green Universities and the Prosperity project, which promote environmental education in the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Modern education needs to be oriented towards not only knowledge and skills but also life skills or competences with practical rather than simply theoretical orientation. Ultimately, the former will be a motivating factor for engaging in green environmental activity. Only proper systems of ecological education for students and future specialists will embody ideas and realise the goals and objectives of greening society.

At the level of enterprises, as demonstrated by the results of the study, skills recognition in relation to environmentally friendly practices only occurs during the recruitment process and only in some enterprises, with informal enterprises less engaged than formal sector enterprises such as automotive companies.

Considering that green skills are one of the most important components of environmental competence, the importance of recognising green skills in prior learning should be also taken into account. In this sense, the new National Qualifications System in the Republic of Kazakhstan can act as an effective mechanism. The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) indicates ways of achieving qualifications at all levels. These qualifications can be achieved not only through formal education but also through the recognition of outcomes from all learning settings, including workplace learning. At the level of sectoral qualifications frameworks (SQF), it will be possible to include green skills in occupational standards and level descriptors of qualifications.

Furthermore, the use of occupational standards in the development of educational programmes aims to promote:

  • Certification of both graduates of educational institutions and employees in enterprises.

  • The inclusion of enterprise-based green skills into occupational standards as well as use of these standards as reference points for the recognition of prior learning. To this end, every enterprise can:

    • conduct qualifying exams and in this way promote the certification of its employees;

    • get accredited independent agencies to award certificates indicating the level of green skills which employees have attained through their contribution to green practices and environmental sustainability.

  • Factors contributing to the effective inclusion of green skills in prior learning include:

    • advocating the development of the green economy among not only to younger learners but to the mass of the population, including employers and employees working in both formal and informal sectors;

    • promoting environmental competitions in the Annual National Environmental Youth Forum;

    • actively promoting all UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as all 17 goals are relevant for environmental security;

    • state bodies being obliged to implement the National Qualifications System (NQS) of the Republic of Kazakhstan and link it to the recognition of skills in all learning settings.

The last of these factors is the most important, because public authorities can not only enforce policy and legislation but also support the implementation of environmental security through recognition of prior learning results and the national qualifications system.