Keywords

The green development of enterprises has been an objective and requirement for the People’s Republic of China’s social and economic development since the 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) (Xinhua News Agency 2007) proposed a transition towards a resource-saving and environment-friendly society. The 18th National Congress of the CPC (China News 2012) presented proposals for a transition towards a more ecological society and the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee further emphasised and expanded its reform for an ecological society and accelerated the establishment of a systemic mechanism for the implementation of the reform.

The 13th Five-year Plan for Economic and Social Development of China (2016–2020) (Xinhua News Agency 2016) integrates the concept of ‘greening’ into the ‘idea of development’, to boost the green transformation of traditional manufacturing industries, the establishment of green and low-carbon circular development industry systems and the renovation of technological equipment for enterprises. Green development, as the new pattern of the economic development, may advance the continuous, effective upgrade of the economy. PRC is acting in line with the international community’s commitment to push for a restructuring and greening of the economy. The theme of the UN Conference on Sustainable Development, held in June 2012, was ‘Green Economy’. In terms of the importance of this subject for the Chinese government, this study examines the development of green enterprises in four industrial sectors and analyses how enterprises respond to environmental issues.

Although nearly 80% of PRC’s employment is found at the micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) (Yi 2018), very often MSMEs are characterised as entities that waste resources and do not use environmentally friendly production processes. For this reason, advocating an environment-friendly upgrade or green development of industries and enterprises is of great importance.

Another area of exploration for the reported study is the use of recognition, validation and accreditation (RVA) mechanism by MSMEs. RVAs of competencies and work experience in all learning settings—formal, non-formal and informal—is not a well-known concept in PRC. However, its importance in educational reforms has grown, especially in the field of adult and vocational education. PRC generally uses recognition practices to motivate adult learners to continue learning by factoring in their previous education, thus reducing the costs incurred by learners. Thus, this study examined the extent to which enterprises involved in the study know, or use, RVA and what RVA requirements they have for job applicants. Application of RVA at the enterprise level is important, as the lack of systematic use of RVA means that workers’ talents are not made sufficiently visible or optimally used for improving production and promoting ‘green competitiveness’.

This chapter develops a systematic understanding of the above two areas by following the overall methodology for the study that examines issues at the macro-, meso-, and micro-levels. The chapter recommends a combination of policies, rules and regulations, as well as a design of an RVA model that can closely match the needs of enterprises to facilitate their development of green competitiveness.

Socio-economic and educational context

Protecting the environment, reducing pollution and mitigating ecological degradation have become priorities for the Chinese Government. The Ministry of Environmental Protection is responsible for establishing and improving the basic system of environmental protection and coordinating and supervising the major environmental issues under the leadership of the state council. Current social and economic development targets the use of new green energy, a balance of energy between supply and demand, the promotion of sustainable development and advancement of economic transformation towards a green economy. Green occupations were identified for the first time in the Occupational Classification Directory of the People’s Republic of China 2015, and occupations significantly characterised by green features, such as low-carbon use and emission, environmental protection and circulation were classified as being green. This was designed to create awareness of green occupations and sustainable development and in turn promoting green jobs. There are 127 occupations in PRC that fit the category of green occupation, which is roughly 8.5% of PRC’s total occupations. With the gradual increase in green occupations, it is becoming increasingly urgent to cultivate talents with green skills, as well as to promote their development (Hu et al. 2017).

The establishment of a lifelong education system and learning societies in which a recognition of learning in all settings, including non-formal and informal learning in enterprises, is a core strategy for promoting lifelong learning and sustainable development. While recognition of all forms of learning is an important aim of education reforms in PRC, especially in the field of adult and vocational education, PRC still needs to promote a more systematic approach to RVA in enterprises and industry. Both the introduction of new technologies that need to be actively implemented by all enterprises to support national and economic development (Wang 2012) and environmental education should be reflected in the way RVA is developed and utilised at MSMEs. Environmental education needs initiatives, such as the Environmental Educator’s Initiatives (EEI) and the national construction of a ‘green school’ that emphasises the penetration of a kind of sustainable development concept, that is, a change of teachers’ teaching methods and students’ learning methods (Yu 2011, p. 73).

Environmental challenges in the People’s Republic of China

The elimination of poverty and economic development remains top priorities in the People’s Republic of China. With growing economic development and improvement in living standards, the demand for energy could increase dramatically, alongside emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Natural disasters, land desertification, successive droughts and climate change will render these problems even more acute and will in turn initiate new problems. Therefore, it is a matter of urgency that a sustainable economic development model, with low pollution and low resource consumption, is created. Environmental challenges caused by four industries under examination and presented for the Asia–Pacific region in Chap. 2 are very relevant to PRC. And the government is taking measures to address these issues.

FormalPara Box 5.1 Environmental challenges facing Chinese industries

  • The automotive industry continues to pour leftover oil and throws repair materials into the sewage/water-distribution channels causing serious water pollution.

  • In the catering sector, enterprises do not follow environmental protection rules. The garbage is dumped and plastic lunchboxes that are thrown away without proper disposal inflict heavy blows on the green environment. They also cause air pollution through smoke from barbecues.

  • Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is one of the five general plastics widely used in industries (such as agriculture, national defence, chemical-building materials, etc.), and waste resulting from the production of PVC is a huge challenge for environmental protection.

  • In the waste-management sector, enterprises lack an understanding of the importance of environmental protection and the need for unified planning and financial support. Furthermore, the Environmental Management Department has drawn attention to the lack of sufficiently trained personnel, material resources and time devoted to comprehensive quality management. All of these factors are leading enterprises in the waste-management sector to follow hazardous waste-disposal practices and neglect environmental protection rules.

Source Author

The national response to environmental challenges

During the past three decades, PRC has introduced several laws and regulations to promote sustainable development, and these relate to environmental protection, energy conservation, development of new and renewable energy, reforestation and soil and water conservation. The country has set up a legal system that focuses on environmental protection, as well as the recycling and reuse of resources. Since the implementation of the 11th Five-Year Plan (2006–2010) for economic and social development, PRC has enacted the following:

  • Circular Economy Promotion Law and its revision (The National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China 2018).

  • Food Safety Law (Xinhua News Agency 2015a, b).

  • Cleaner Production Promotion Law (The National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China 2012).

  • Environmental Protection Law (Xinhua News Agency 2014).

  • Criminal Procedure Law for serious environmental damage (The Procuratorate Daily 2016).

  • Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution law and its revision (Xinhua News Agency 2015a, b).

In addition, PRC has strengthened its social supervision of, and publicity and information about, environmental protection.

The State Council of China and relevant ministries have launched several activities to reduce emissions and save energy, including the 12th Five-Year Plan (2011–2015) for Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction (State Council, 2012). In March 2014, the council convened to discuss energy conservation, emission reduction and responses to climate change. It passed an Action Plan for Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction from 2014 to 2015 (State Council, 2014). The council’s other efforts to instigate stronger environmental protections are summarised in Box 5.2.

FormalPara Box 5.2 Laws and regulations in automotive, catering, PVC manufacturing and waste management

  • The automotive industry is now expected to have knowledge of emissions and to ensure that pollutant emissions are controlled. Proper methods are to be used to measure the emissions caused by light vehicles with spark-ignition engine exhausts (Zeng, 2008).

  • It is mandatory for catering enterprises be knowledgeable about relevant laws related to food safety, clean production and food hygiene, for public eateries. They must also know how to deal with emergencies in public health incidents and be aware that the state council is strengthening food product safety supervision and the management of special provisions.

  • PVC enterprises are expected be familiar with PRC’s laws on environmental protection, prevention and control of air pollution and cleaner production, environment impact assessments, pollution census regulations and renewable energy laws.

  • Enterprises in the waste management sector are regulated by the Law on the Prevention and Control of Pollution by Solid Waste (Xinhua News Agency, 2004). This law comprises detailed rules on waste disposal methods, and the responsibilities of waste practitioners at all levels of government, as well as rules on waste management and supervision.

Source Author

1 Terminology and Definitions

Conceptualisation of green skills

The use of the term ‘green competency’ in this study derives from the concept of enterprise competitiveness, based on the reality of enterprises’ requirements for environmental protection and sustainable development. Green competency refers to the ability of enterprises to gain competitive advantages in market access, trade and value creation by combining sustainable development strategies (based on environmental protection with enterprise requirements and interests) to provide more attractive green products and services. By paying more attention to environmental protection, green competency becomes a major factor in an enterprise's competitiveness. Chinese enterprises now face challenges in relation to tackling increasing penalties for not meeting green requirements as well as trade restrictions in international markets.

Green skills include those needed to produce environmentally friendly products and ensure good environmental practices in enterprises. The notion of green skills therefore includes professional and technical skills, as well as communication and negotiation skills that support environmentally friendly and sustainable business practices. Technical and non-technical skills are job-specific as well as generalised and should facilitate the change needed to move organisations towards the implementation of green policy (see definition adopted by this study, Chap. 1).

In 2007, the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) proposed the Green Jobs Initiative and defined green jobs as referring to decent work created in economic sectors and economic activities, which could reduce negative environmental impacts and ultimately achieve environmental, economic and social sustainable development.

In 2008, ILO and UNEP jointly published Green Jobs: Towards Decent Work in a Sustainable, Low-Carbon World (UNEP&ILO 2008), which defined green jobs as work in agriculture, manufacturing, research and development (R&D), administration and service activities that contribute(s) substantially to preserving or restoring environmental quality. Meanwhile, PRC’s revised dictionary of occupations defines green jobs to include:

  • production activities, including monitoring, protection and management and beautification of the environment.

  • development of new energies such as solar, wind and biomass energy.

  • those that guarantee efficient handling of increased traffic.

  • recycling and reusing of waste.

  • services dealing with research, technology development, design and planning.

This definition of green jobs draws on developed countries’ experience in ecological balancing and the sustainable development of human production and life, as well as career development. It promotes the harmonious development of PRC’s economy and society while pushing for environmental protection, low-carbon emissions, recycling and sustainable development, and entails a continuous adjustment of the industrial structure and human resources, as well as planning to promote the training of workers and green employment.

The status of recognition, validation and accreditation (RVA) in relation to the People’s Republic of China

The People’s Republic of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020) (Xinhua News Agency, 2010) aims: to establish a system of credit accumulation and transformation in continuing education to achieve mutual recognition and a connection between different kinds of learning outcomes. It also includes a policy to establish a system of learning outcomes certification and a credit bank system.

The 13th Five-year Plan for Education has put forward the clear ambition of ‘accelerating the development of continuing education to establish the certification, accumulation and transformation system for learning outcomes, [and] the national school credit bank’. Compared with the national education plan in 2010, this ambition gives a clearer and concrete expression to relevant tasks and measures and echoes the structural adjustment and institutional innovation highlighted in the plan.

The groundwork for the development of a lifelong learning system, educational bridges for talent development, certification and an accumulation and transformation system for learning outcomes are key factors that promote enthusiasm for lifelong learning, a diversity of courses as well as support for student mobility, education quality and fairness.

PRC began a practical exploration of related fields long before 2010 and has accelerated the development in recent years. The Self-Examination System of Higher Education, initiated in 1981, is such a system—it accumulates and certifies the self-study outcome of citizens by examination. At the same time, some adult colleges and higher vocational colleges in PRC have provisions in place to certify off-campus learning experience and learning outcomes among students to replace relevant courses in the campus.

In response to the National Programme for Medium- and Long-Term Educational Reform and Development, numerous universities and enterprises carried out practical explorations about credit recognition and mutual recognition, and some regions like Shanghai, Shaanxi, Jiangsu and Guangdong established a regional school credit bank. In addition, citizen school credit banks were built in the Xicheng District of Beijing, Cixi City of Zhejiang and other areas. The Open University of PRC also effectively improved the standing of school credit banks (Song, 2012) by taking into account students’ previous credits during the admissions process and exempting students from taking some courses or examinations. Those who have the CET-4 (College English Test 4) or above can be exempted from the public English examination.

2 Methodology of Primary Data Collection

The study adopts the overall methodology developed by the project and used the developed instruments such as survey/interview questions, the observation list and the list of generic green skills to collect data (see Chap. 1). At the micro-level, in order to understand how small, micro and medium enterprises undertake green practices and promote the development and recognition of green skills, interviews were conducted in 32 enterprises in four different sectors (automotive, catering, PVC production and waste management—eight in each industry) using a semi-open-ended questionnaire. In each sector, four formal sector SMEs and four micro-enterprises in the informal sector were interviewed. In all, 75 of 80 questionnaires were completed.

The enterprises were located in different regions of PRC: the automotive enterprises were in Hangzhou, Jinhua and Suzhou; the catering enterprises were in the Xihu district and Xiasha Higher Education Zone of Hangzhou, the capital of the Zhejiang province; SMEs involved in PVC production and manufacturing sales were located in Guangdong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shanghai.

The catering enterprises provided seafood, snacks and buffets. Catering SMEs were mainly cafe owners, managers and head chefs. The respondents of micro-catering enterprises were self-employed entrepreneurs and owners of enterprises. Micro-catering enterprises mainly prepared noodles and hot pots. The PVC SMEs were engaged in manufacturing and sales of all sizes of PVC building, water-supply and drainage pipes, PVC environmentally friendly rubber sponge products, PVC flexible pipes and plastic injection moulds. They made up the middle and backend of PVC production. The four informal micro-enterprises were self-employed owners of workshops. They were engaged in making individualised custom-made small kitchenware moulds. The workshops received orders and then sub-contracted factories who then undertook the small-batch production. The PVC industry is generally based in mainland PRC. The research was carried out with the four SMEs in PVC industrial production. In the waste management sector, in which the state environmental protection departments of the government in PRC play a major role at all levels, the respondents were selected from local government environmental management departments, as well as from the waste management departments of production enterprises. The automotive SMEs were small car wash shops that needed a lot of water every day. The respondents were self-employed entrepreneurs and owners.

The average size of automotive SMEs is small, so usually there are 10–20 workers in each. Micro-automotive enterprises have only 10–15 staff. The four PVC SMEs employed between 80 and 200 employees. The catering SMEs had between 10 and 40 staff. Two of the four SMEs catering enterprises had 40 employees and the other two had 15 and 30 staff, respectively. There are usually fewer than ten people in micro-catering enterprises. Two of the four micro-catering enterprises had four staff and the other two had three and six staff. And the waste management SMEs have 20 workers on average while micros have less than 10 staff.

Most owners of automotive SMEs have received secondary vocational education or higher vocational education, but all respondents from the micro-automotive enterprises had received technical school education. Most of the staff in the four SMEs in the catering sector had secondary school education or vocational training. The educational levels in the micro-enterprises of the catering sector—middle and high school—were lower than in the studied SMEs. The number of employers and employees in PVC SMEs with specialised vocational training and higher education was higher than enterprises in the other studied industry sectors. The enterprises in Guangdong and Shanghai, with 75% in Kang Cheng and with 70%, stand out among the eight investigated enterprises. Zhejiang Jirui had 60%, while Jiangsu Dengyue had 58% of employees with specialised vocational training or higher education. The respondents from the waste management sector had all only received secondary or middle school education.

3 Results and Discussion

Results in relation to green skills

The preceding section outlined key priorities for green enterprise development from the macro-level perspective of policy and legislation. It also briefly considered the status of recognition of prior learning in PRC. While the starting point was to understand the enabling environment, the study expands to the analysis of local needs, specifically from the perspective of those working in the enterprises—the employers, trainers and workers in SME and micro-enterprises. Their potentially differing needs for green practices and skills, as well as recognition mechanisms, are analysed and compared. The study also considers how green practices in enterprises interact with macro policy, regulations and meso institutional standards.

Awareness of policy and regulations

The research found that all four SMEs in the catering sector knew about environmental protection laws and regulations relevant to their industry. However, only one micro-catering enterprise demonstrated knowledge of some elements of the environmental regulations. Their awareness of environmental law was limited to platoon lampblack, domestic sewage, use of clean oil and plastic products. Their knowledge, acquired mainly through the process of administrative law enforcement, was narrow. Catering enterprises are chiefly concerned with survival and profit, and the motivation for implementing environmental protection stems mainly from government enforcement measures rather than from their own awareness about environmental degradation and the stress that should be placed on environmental protection. The study demonstrated high awareness of environmental measures among owners of SMEs (all four displayed awareness) versus a very low awareness among owners of micro-enterprises in the informal sector—only one owner displayed awareness. Of all eight enterprises in the catering sector, six enterprises had formulated regulations and rules for front desk attendants, bakers and cooks, while two of the micro-enterprises had formulated regulations and rules but only for cooks and shopkeepers. SMEs were more likely to follow green practices than micro-enterprises.

In the PVC sector, four SMEs showed a high level of awareness of policies and regulations. Except for Zhejiang Jirui, three of the four enterprises studied had established a full-time environmental quality assurance department to supervise the implementation of green policies.

In the waste management sector, both four SMEs and micro-enterprises showed low levels of awareness of the policies and regulations. Four automotive SMEs had a better understanding of policies and regulations, while four micro-automotive enterprises were uncommitted.

Importance attributed to green practices

Green practices in the automotive industry

Out of the eight automotive enterprises (four SMEs and four micro-enterprises), only two stressed the importance of green skills and engaged in green practices. The remaining four automotive enterprises, which were mostly informal roadside car-repair firms, possessed no green skills or green environmental protection requirements and measures. Unlike the micro-enterprises in the catering sector, the automotive SMEs placed a higher level of importance on green skills and environmental protection measures.

Green practices in PVC enterprises

The question of the importance of green skills for PVC enterprises was posed as a sliding 1–10 Likert scale, with 1 representing low consideration for environmental pollution and 10 representing high consideration for environmental pollution. Guangdong Kangcheng and Shanghai Feili rated their enterprises as having placed a high importance on green skills (7–8), followed by Zhejiang Jirui (6) and Jiangsu Dengyue (4).

Green practices in catering enterprises

Table 5.2 shows that in the main it is the SMEs, rather than the micro-catering enterprises, that had adopted specific green practices such as brochures, incentives, courses and marketing strategies for promoting environmental practices. One of the findings was that enterprises generally concentrated more on green practices that saved costs, such as saving water and energy. There was very little motivation to introduce measures that would increase the cost of running the enterprise.

Table 5.1 General information on enterprises participating in the study
Full size table
Table 5.2 Green practices in catering enterprises
Full size table

Green practices in the waste management industry

None of the respondents in the waste management sector had any awareness of green practices. They considered it a waste of money.

Skill requirements in the enterprises

In relation to which skills/competencies are required to sustain environmentally friendly practices, more SMEs than micro-enterprises identified green skill requirements.

Box 5.3 Skill requirements in the enterprises

Waste management

Respondents in micro-enterprises pay more attention to basic practical skills related to their own occupations and jobs, such as collecting, storing, sorting, and recycling rather than environmentally friendly skills.

Automotive

(An example for one occupation—car maintenance).

  • Basic professional ethics.

  • One of the following educational certificates: technical school, secondary vocational education, or higher vocational education diploma.

  • One of the certificates of professional technical levels: intermediate certificate, senior certificate, technician certificate, senior technician certificate.

Catering

(Three out of four small and medium enterprises).

  • Environmental awareness and a willingness to learn about sustainable development.

  • Interpersonal skills and technological skills.

  • Inter-personal strategic and leadership skills to enable policy-makers and business executives to set the right incentives that create conditions conducive to cleaner production and cleaner transportation.

  • Inter-personal skills ranked higher than job-specific skills.

  • Competency-based training.

  • Innovation skills to identify opportunities and create new strategies to respond to green challenges.

  • Measures that would increase benefits instead of costs.

(Two micro-enterprises).

  • Marketing skills to promote greener products and services.

  • Competency based training.

  • Innovation skills to identify opportunities and create new strategies to respond to green challenges.

  • Measures that would increase benefits instead of costs.

PVC manufacturing

(SMEs).

Guangzhou Kangcheng, Shanghai Feili and Zhejiang.

  • Cognitive competencies, intra-personal, inter-personal and technological skills.

Jiangsu Dengyue.

  • Environmental awareness and a willingness to learn about sustainable development.

  • Systems and risk analysis skills to assess, interpret, and understand both the need for change as well as the measures required.

  • Strategic and leadership skills to enable policy-makers and business executives to set the right incentives and create conditions conducive to cleaner production and cleaner transportation.

  • Coordination, management, and business skills to facilitate holistic and interdisciplinary approaches that encompass economic, social, and ecological objectives.

  • Adaptability and transferable skills to enable workers to learn and apply the new technologies and processes required to implement green practices.

Source Author (based on green skills categorisation by Pavlova, 2017)

Workplace learning and training programmes

Four SMEs and three micro-enterprises in the catering sector supported staff training. Only one micro-enterprise said the work was easy and therefore training was not necessary. The enterprises that supported training said it would be beneficial in terms of improving skills, enhancing enterprise development and increasing business profits. All catering SMEs had some form of workplace training and acknowledged the importance of recognising ‘green skills’. On the other hand, micro-enterprises were not inclined to recognise ‘green skills’ and RVA was not high on their training agenda.

None of the automotive enterprises attached importance to workplace training, in particular the four micro-enterprises, due to their high staff turnover.

Eight enterprises in the waste management sector supported their staff training, but only when staff were first hired in order to standardise work procedures and management.

All PVC small and medium enterprises were positive towards workplace learning and training. They felt it would benefit staff development and were agreeable to continue to provide as many such opportunities as possible. They also identified training objectives which, they said, should relate to new green technologies, meet the requirements of professional development set by the enterprise, fill skill gaps that they were not able to fill during recruitment, and comply with new regulations and legislation. All of these learning objectives reflected the differing demands of the enterprises, which in turn highlighted the different levels of green development among the enterprises.

There was also a difference between the four PVC enterprises in terms of what they referred to as ‘the expected skills’, ‘the providers of the training’, ‘the assessment methods’ and ‘certification’ at the conclusion of training. Staff training was internal and was usually supervised and assessed by the executive or the human resources department. Given this internal nature of enterprises’ training, their personnel departments could easily issue certificates.

The PVC enterprises believed that staff training would improve the performance of employees and the quality of production, promote the long-term development of their enterprise and improve standards for a greener PVC industry in PRC.

The PVC enterprises responded positively towards workplace learning/training programmes in the context of RVA. Employers said they understood RVA to refer to the identification and assessment of previous skills and education among employees, or potential employees, before recruiting the candidate into a training programme.

Embedding RVA mechanisms in green skills workplace learning

Regarding RVA, all automotive SMEs affirmed they had some informal mechanisms to identify, document, assess, recognise and certify the achievements of employees acquired in the workplace, community, artistic or other life activities, as well as through non-formal workshops, conferences and training programmes. However, they but did not offer RVA for employees. They evaluated employees’ competencies through interviews. There were no responses from micro-enterprises on the issue of RVA.

Three catering SMEs said they recognised non-formal and informal learning of their employees; however, they did not apply formal methods and were not interested in certifying their employees—they were more interested in how the employees were able to apply their practical skills. One catering SME demonstrated interest in an employee’s virtue and skills. In addition, one catering enterprise maintained an archive system for recording employees’ skills, their virtues and application skills. Overall, micro-catering enterprises had no formal system for recognising skills. They stressed more importance on an employee's practical skills than their previous educational certificates. When recruiting new staff, most catering SMEs said that they adopted interview, display of skills and test methods. Recruiting through a friend's introduction was another way they recruited staff. Most catering SMEs and micro-enterprises had no RVA system related to green skills certification. RVA was not used to recognise previous learning certification with the intention of strengthening future green skills. Most companies thought green skills simply benefitted individuals and the country, rather than being of specific benefit to the enterprise itself.

In PVC enterprises, employees’ skills were assessed during the interview process and, based on the results of the interview, supplementary training was offered. During recruitment, the PVC SMEs checked qualification certificates and evaluated and recognised the professional knowledge mentioned in certificates or resumés. Guangdong Kangcheng and Shanghai Feili asked only for certificates, and candidates were not expected to go through an interview in order to prove their competencies. None of the four enterprises had records of certificates that listed previous learning abilities.

It was the task of the human resource department to decide the assessment standard, record and publish the results, as well as to assign qualifying personnel to appropriate tasks. Skills assessment was not derived from certificates; rather it was internally validated by the enterprise.

The PVC SMEs lamented the lack of a PVC certification authority for awarding certification through the RVA process and highlighted the gap between PRC and countries in Europe and North America in the implementation of RVA for professional development in workplaces. However, they displayed a high interest in RVA when asked if they were willing to hire employees by conducting RVA, saying it would greatly reduce human resource costs and training time and would improve the enterprise's operation and efficiency.

No data on RVA were obtained from the waste management sector. This was because of the low emphasis placed on RVA in this sector in PRC.

Enterprises’ vision for the future: Inclusion of green skills in RVA

All catering SMEs that participated in the study were willing to promote environmental protection measures. The SMEs said they were open to formulating a company vision about green skills, to include green skills into RVA certification and to learn more. By contrast, there was a mixed response from the catering micro businesses: one was interested in RVA, two wanted to strengthen green skills by using RVA and one said it had no such vision for the future.

The SMEs in the PVC sector indicated that they attached high importance to the principle of clean production and were interested in maintaining and improving clean production. As for achievements in the field of ‘helping to improve environmental friendly practices’ and ‘recognising and reporting potential environment threats’ in the PVC industry, Zhejiang Jirui and Jiangsu Dengyue could be rated at the intermediate level, while Guangdong Kangcheng and Shanghai Feili could be rated at the level of high achievement.

Regards to automotive enterprises, only one enterprise, called Zhejiang Hecheng Quantong Automobile Service Company, had a clear requirement for green skills, and the others responded positively (although they do not keep any records in that regard).

Enterprises in the waste management sector all expressed a strong desire to strengthen green skills and improve their environmental protection practices through certification of previously learnt skills, which they believed reflects their professional attitude and dedication.

4 Conclusions and Recommendations

Compared to micro-enterprises, SMEs are largely more environmentally friendly. However, there are still some limitations, considering that many green practices are not fully implemented and insufficient attention is paid to regulating standards.

Regarding the practice of RVA across the four investigated industries, enterprises in the catering and automotive industries were found to have some mechanisms to recognise previous learning, certificates, skills and work experience and prior competencies, but in general, RVA has not been broadly promoted in PRC, and the country lags behind Western countries when it comes to enterprise-based RVA.

In countries with a well-established RVA system, recognition processes are being used in varying situations and for different purposes, such as ensuring access to further education and training, integration into the labour market and personal and professional career development. An increasing number of countries are using RVA to highlight the competencies of workers in enterprises. This helps them to establish existing skill gaps and overcome them through work-based training that is good increase company’s competitiveness. This exploratory study has produced some significant information with respect to the importance of establishing an enterprise-based RVA system and enabling enterprises to improve their green competitiveness.

Recommendations for addressing greening skills challenges

Recommendations are listed below for the purposes of addressing the challenges associated with greening skills in PRC:

  • Set up a dialogue between government, employers and employees to discuss the transformation of the education and training sector, emphasising shared responsibility among stakeholders for investment in education.

  • Ensure that changes to the education system are driven, and led by, the State. National qualification standards for all green collar occupations are required, and levels of government investment in vocational education and training need to be increased.

  • Through the process of consultation with industry, facilitate employers and trade unions to develop a green curriculum that meets the needs of industry. Teachers and trainers should generally be industry experts, as well as academics (with dual qualifications). Flexible learning delivery methods will make green training more accessible to workers and will encourage participation across sub-sections of the community.

  • Build awareness of specific measures that businesses can take to reduce the environmental impact of their activities and improve their compliance with relevant state and national legislation. Where sustainability remains a relatively low priority for businesses that are not large emitters, the government will need to provide incentives through investment in green skills training.

  • Raise the profile of employment opportunities in green and sustainability sectors through communications related to career advice, training and the creation of employment pathways.

  • Conduct further research on professional qualification standards for green jobs and skills.

  • Build a bridge between enterprises, training organisations, vocational schools and government to recognise previous learning outcomes.

Significance

Strengthening the training of workers and improving their green skills is an important part of promoting a smooth transition towards a green economy and industry in PRC. The inclusion of green skills in RVA could provide a significant push in this direction. In emerging industries, the demand for professional knowledge and high technical ability requires the state, enterprise, and society to strengthen the training among high-quality personnel. Practical and effective measures should be taken to protect labour rights and interests, improve labour conditions, enhance workers’ abilities and quality through training and gradually improve the employment level, i.e. people’s access and ability to secure a job or promotion.

In the process of transforming the Chinese economy, it will be necessary to adapt not only to the needs of the domestic economy but also to international economic developments. The development of green economies should improve enterprises by creating green employment opportunities, which should improve the quality of jobs as well as create decent work. From the experience of established green economies, the country will incur high start-up costs in the initial stages of the green transition. It is also important to note that this transformation carries great risk for enterprises.

Enterprises need to strategically respond to significant national policies. However, at the same time, they must respond to market competition and social environment requirements. All three—state, market and society—must work together and support one another. Of course, all parties need to face the short-term pain of transformation; they need to work together to share resources to create a more suitable environment for green development and survive.