Abstract
The human body accommodates a multitude of microorganisms that inhabit various anatomical sites, such as skin, mucosa, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, urogenital tract and mammary glands, and are collectively defined as the microbiome, the composition and functions of which are crucial to health and survival (Moos 2016). Among the different organ systems, that coordinate the functions of the human body, central nervous system, comprising the brain and spinal cord, plays a primary role in controlling awareness, movements, sensations, thoughts, speech and memory by integrating sensory information and responding accordingly. Furthermore, the microbiome engages in complex interactions with the organ systems of the human body thereby regulating the functions of both the entities. Such relationships between the central nervous system (CNS) and the gut microbiome have been explored in detail and is termed as microbiome-gut-brain (MGB) axis, a complex bidirectional inter-communication that exists between the gut microbiome and the crucial areas of the CNS (Malan-Muller et al. 2018; Cryan 2019). Various neuroactive compounds such as neurotransmitters, metabolites, cytokines, and hormones are synthesised by the gut microbiota and the host as a result of this interaction. These neuromodulatory substances gain access to the brain by different pathways, thus affecting the local homeostasis. Dysregulation of the MGB axis has been implicated in the pathogenesis of various neuroinflammatory, neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases which is mediated by either a direct line of communication through vagus nerve or immune system activation or both (Cryan 2019). In turn, gut microbiota composition is influenced by the brain in response to stress and endocrine factors (Tremlett et al. 2017).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Akbari E, Asemi Z, Daneshvar Kakhaki R et al (2016) Effect of probiotic supplementation on cognitive function and metabolic status in Alzheimer’s disease: a randomized, double-blind and controlled trial. Front Aging Neurosci 8:256. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2016.00256
Aresti Sanz J, El Aidy S (2019) Microbiota and gut neuropeptides: a dual action of antimicrobial activity and neuroimmune response. Psychopharmacology 236:1597–1609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-019-05224-0
Arpaia N, Campbell C, Fan X et al (2013) Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T-cell generation. Nature 504:451–455
Barichella M, Pacchetti C, Bolliri C et al (2016) Probiotics and prebiotic fiber for constipation associated with Parkinson disease: an RCT. Neurology 87:1274–1280. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003127
Bedarf JR, Hildebrand F, Coelho LP et al (2017) Functional implications of microbial and viral gut metagenome changes in early stage L-DOPA-naïve Parkinson’s disease patients. Genome Med 9:39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13073-017-0428-y
Berer K, Gerdes LA, Cekanaviciute E et al (2017) Gut microbiota from multiple sclerosis patients enables spontaneous autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114:10719–10724. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1711233114
Blander JM, Longman RS, Iliev ID et al (2017) Regulation of inflammation by microbiota interactions with the host. Nat Immunol 18:851–860. https://doi.org/10.1038/ni.3780
Bostanciklioğlu M (2019) The role of gut microbiota in pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. J Appl Microbiol 127:954–967. https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.14264
Browning KN, Verheijden S, Boeckxstaens GE (2017) The Vagus nerve in appetite regulation, mood, and intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology 152:730–744. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2016.10.046
Cani PD (2018) Human gut microbiome: hopes, threats and promises. Gut 67:1716–1725. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316723
Cantarel BL, Waubant E, Chehoud C et al (2015) Gut microbiota in multiple sclerosis: possible influence of Immunomodulators. J Investig Med 63:729–734. https://doi.org/10.1097/JIM.0000000000000192
Carissimi C, Laudadio I, Palone F et al (2019) Functional analysis of gut microbiota and immunoinflammation in children with autism spectrum disorders. Dig Liver Dis 51:1366–1374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dld.2019.06.006
Cattaneo A, Cattane N, Galluzzi S et al (2017) Association of brain amyloidosis with pro-inflammatory gut bacterial taxa and peripheral inflammation markers in cognitively impaired elderly. Neurobiol Aging 49:60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.08.019
Cheung SG, Goldenthal AR, Uhlemann A-C et al (2019) Systematic review of gut microbiota and major depression. Front Psychiatry 10:34. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00034
Chaidez V, Hansen RL, Hertz-Picciotto I (2014) Gastrointestinal problems in children with autism, developmental delays or typical development. J Autism Dev Disord 44:1117–1127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1973-x
Chen J, Chia N, Kalari KR et al (2016) Multiple sclerosis patients have a distinct gut microbiota compared to healthy controls. Sci Rep 6:28484. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep28484
Coretti L, Paparo L, Riccio MP et al (2018) Gut microbiota features in young children with autism Spectrum disorders. Front Microbiol 9:3146. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.03146
Cree BAC, Spencer CM, Varrin-Doyer M et al (2016) Gut microbiome analysis in neuromyelitis optica reveals overabundance of Clostridium perfringens. Ann Neurol 80:443–447. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24718
Cryan JF, O’Riordan KJ, Cowan CSM et al (2019) The microbiota-gut-brain Axis. Physiol Rev 99:1877–2013. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00018.2018
De Angelis M, Piccolo M, Vannini L et al (2013) Fecal microbiota and metabolome of children with autism and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified. PLoS One 8:e76993. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076993
DeTure MA, Dickson DW (2019) The neuropathological diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. Mol Neurodegener 14:32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13024-019-0333-5
Dietz KC, Casaccia P (2010) HDAC inhibitors and neurodegeneration: at the edge between protection and damage. Pharmacol Res 62:11–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2010.01.011
Dono A, Patrizz A, McCormack RM et al (2020) Glioma induced alterations in fecal short-chain fatty acids and neurotransmitters. CNS Oncology 9:CNS57. https://doi.org/10.2217/cns-2020-0007
Dzidic M, Boix-Amorós A, Selma-Royo M et al (2018) Gut microbiota and mucosal immunity in the neonate. Med Sci 6:56. https://doi.org/10.3390/medsci6030056
El Aidy S, Dinan TG, Cryan JF (2014) Immune modulation of the brain-gut-microbe axis. Front Microbiol 5:146. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2014.00146
Erny D, Hrabě de Angelis AL, Jaitin D et al (2015) Host microbiota constantly control maturation and function of microglia in the CNS. Nat Neurosci 18:965–977. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4030
Finegold SM, Dowd SE, Gontcharova V et al (2010) Pyrosequencing study of fecal microflora of autistic and control children. Anaerobe 16:444–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anaerobe.2010.06.008
Fung TC, Olson CA, Hsiao EY (2017) Interactions between the microbiota, immune and nervous systems in health and disease. Nat Neurosci 20:145–155. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4476
Gill SR, Pop M, DeBoy RT et al (2006) Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome. Science 312:1355–1359. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1124234
Glatigny S, Bettelli E (2018) Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) as animal models of multiple sclerosis (MS). Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 8:a028977. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a028977
Gubert C, Kong G, Renoir T et al (2018) Exercise, diet and stress as modulators of gut microbiota: implications for neurodegenerative diseases. Neurobiol Dis. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2019.104621
Heintz-Buschart A, Pandey U, Wicke T et al (2018) The nasal and gut microbiome in Parkinson’s disease and idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder: nose and gut microbiome in PD and iRBD. Mov Disord 33:88–98. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.27105
Heneka MT, Carson MJ, Khoury JE et al (2015) Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet Neurol 14:388–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(15)70016-5
Hill-Burns EM, Debelius JW, Morton JT et al (2017) Parkinson’s disease and Parkinson’s disease medications have distinct signatures of the gut microbiome. Mov Disord 32(5):739–749. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.26942
Hilton D, Stephens M, Kirk L et al (2014) Accumulation of α-synuclein in the bowel of patients in the pre-clinical phase of Parkinson’s disease. Acta Neuropathol 127:235–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-013-1214-6
Hirsch EC, Hunot S (2009) Neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s disease: a target for neuroprotection? Lancet Neurol 8:382–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70062-6
Holmqvist S, Chutna O, Bousset L et al (2014) Direct evidence of Parkinson pathology spread from the gastrointestinal tract to the brain in rats. Acta Neuropathol 128:805–820. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-014-1343-6
Holzer P, Farzi A (2014) Neuropeptides and the microbiota-gut-brain Axis. In: Lyte M, Cryan JF (eds) Microbial endocrinology: the microbiota-gut-brain Axis in health and disease. Springer, New York, NY, pp 195–219
Ivanov II, Atarashi K, Manel N et al (2009) Induction of intestinal Th17 cells by segmented filamentous bacteria. Cell 139:485–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2009.09.033
Jangi S, Gandhi R, Cox LM et al (2016) Alterations of the human gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis. Nat Commun 7:12015. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12015
Jiang C, Li G, Huang P et al (2017) The gut microbiota and Alzheimer’s disease. JAD 58:1–15. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-161141
Johnson KV-A (2020) Gut microbiome composition and diversity are related to human personality traits. Human Microbiome J 15:100069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humic.2019.100069
Kalia LV, Lang AE (2016) Evolving basic, pathological and clinical concepts in PD. Nat Rev Neurol 12:65–66. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2015.249
Kang D-W, Adams JB, Gregory AC et al (2017) Microbiota transfer therapy alters gut ecosystem and improves gastrointestinal and autism symptoms: an open-label study. Microbiome 5:10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-016-0225-7
Kang V, Wagner GC, Ming X (2014) Gastrointestinal dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Res 7:501–506. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1386
Keshavarzian A, Green SJ, Engen PA et al (2015) Colonic bacterial composition in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 30:1351–1360. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.26307
Kim S, Kwon S-H, Kam T-I et al (2019) Transneuronal propagation of pathologic α-Synuclein from the gut to the brain models Parkinson’s disease. Neuron 103:627–641.e7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2019.05.035
Kouchaki E, Tamtaji OR, Salami M et al (2017) Clinical and metabolic response to probiotic supplementation in patients with multiple sclerosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Nutr 36:1245–1249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2016.08.015
Li C, Cui L, Yang Y et al (2019) Gut microbiota differs between Parkinson’s disease patients and healthy controls in Northeast China. Front Mol Neurosci 12:171. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2019.00171
Li Q, Han Y, Dy ABC, Hagerman RJ (2017) The gut microbiota and autism Spectrum disorders. Front Cell Neurosci 11:120. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2017.00120
Lin CH, Chen CC, Chiang HL et al (2019) Altered gut microbiota and inflammatory cytokine responses in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neuroinflammation 16(1):129. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-019-1528-y
Lord C, Elsabbagh M, Baird G, Veenstra-Vanderweele J (2018) Autism spectrum disorder. Lancet 392:508–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31129-2
Lowry CA, Hollis JH, de Vries A et al (2007) Identification of an immune-responsive mesolimbocortical serotonergic system: potential role in regulation of emotional behavior. Neuroscience 146:756–772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.01.067
Lyte M, Cryan JF (eds) (2014) Microbial endocrinology: the microbiota-gut-brain Axis in health and disease. Springer, New York, NY
Ma B, Liang J, Dai M et al (2019) Altered gut microbiota in Chinese children with autism spectrum disorders. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 9:40. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00040
Malan-Muller S, Valles-Colomer M, Raes J et al (2018) The gut microbiome and mental health: implications for anxiety–and trauma-related disorders. OMICS: J Integr Biol 22:90–107. https://doi.org/10.1089/omi.2017.0077
Mehrian-Shai R, Reichardt JKV, Harris CC, Toren A (2019) The is, paving the way to brain cancer. Trends in Cancer 5:200–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trecan.2019.02.008
MetaHIT Consortium (additional members), Arumugam M, Raes J et al (2011) Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome. Nature 473:174–180. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09944
Mirza A, Forbes JD, Zhu F et al (2020) The multiple sclerosis gut microbiota: a systematic review. Mult Scler Relat Disord 37:101427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msard.2019.101427
Miyake S, Kim S, Suda W et al (2015) Dysbiosis in the gut microbiota of patients with multiple sclerosis, with a striking depletion of species belonging to clostridia XIVa and IV clusters. PLoS One 10:e0137429. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137429
Moos WH, Faller DV, Harpp DN et al (2016) Microbiota and neurological disorders: a gut feeling. BioResearch Open Access 5:137–145. https://doi.org/10.1089/biores.2016.0010
Moradi K, Ashraf-Ganjouei A, Tavolinejad H et al (2021) The interplay between gut microbiota and autism spectrum disorders: a focus on immunological pathways. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 106:110091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110091
Mowry EM, Azevedo CJ, McCulloch CE et al (2018) Body mass index, but not vitamin D status, is associated with brain volume change in MS. Neurology 91:e2256–e2264. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000006644
Mowry EM, Glenn JD (2018) The dynamics of the gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis in relation to disease. Neurol Clin 36:185–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2017.08.008
Mulak A (2015) Brain-gut-microbiota axis in Parkinson’s disease. WJG 21:10609. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v21.i37.10609
Nayak D, Roth TL, McGavern DB (2014) Microglia development and function. Annu Rev Immunol 32:367–402. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-immunol-032713-120240
Nejman D, Livyatan I, Fuks G et al (2020) The human tumor microbiome is composed of tumor type–specific intracellular bacteria. Science 368:973–980. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay9189
Ng QX, Loke W, Venkatanarayanan N et al (2019) A systematic review of the role of prebiotics and probiotics in autism Spectrum disorders. Medicina (Kaunas) 55:129. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina55050129
Pan W, Stone KP, Hsuchou H et al (2011) Cytokine signaling modulates blood-brain barrier function. Curr Pharm Des 17:3729–3740. https://doi.org/10.2174/138161211798220918
Pandit L, Cox LM, Malli C et al (2021) Clostridium bolteae is elevated in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder in India and shares sequence similarity with AQP4. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 8:e907. https://doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000000907
Pascale A, Marchesi N, Marelli C et al (2018) Microbiota and metabolic diseases. Endocrine 61:357–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-018-1605-5
Patel AP, Fisher JL, Nichols E et al (2019) Global, regional, and national burden of brain and other CNS cancer, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016. Lancet Neurol 18:376–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30468-X
Pfeiffer RF (2016) Non-motor symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 22:S119–S122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2015.09.004
Poewe W (2008) Non-motor symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. Eur J Neurol 15(Suppl 1):14–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1331.2008.02056.x
Pulikkan J, Maji A, Dhakan DB et al (2018) Gut microbial dysbiosis in Indian children with autism spectrum disorders. Microb Ecol 76(4):1102–1114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-018-1176-2
Pulikkan J, Mazumder A, Grace T (2019) Role of the gut microbiome in autism Spectrum disorders. Adv Exp Med Biol 1118:253–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05542-4_13
Rae-Grant A, Day GS, Marrie RA et al (2018) Practice guideline recommendations summary: disease-modifying therapies for adults with multiple sclerosis: report of the guideline development, dissemination, and implementation subcommittee of the American academy of neurology. Neurology 90:777–788. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000005347
Reich DS, Lucchinetti CF, Calabresi PA (2018) Multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 378:169–180. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1401483
Rothhammer V, Mascanfroni ID, Bunse L et al (2016) Type I interferons and microbial metabolites of tryptophan modulate astrocyte activity and central nervous system inflammation via the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Nat Med 22:586–597. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.4106
Sampson TR, Debelius JW, Thron T et al (2016) Gut microbiota regulate motor deficits and Neuroinflammation in a model of Parkinson’s disease. Cell 167:1469–1480.e12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2016.11.018
Scheperjans F, Aho V, Pereira PAB et al (2015) Gut microbiota are related to Parkinson’s disease and clinical phenotype. Mov Disord 30:350–358. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.26069
Sender R, Fuchs S, Milo R (2016) Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body. PLoS Biol 14:e1002533. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002533
Silva YP, Bernardi A, Frozza RL (2020) The role of short-chain fatty acids from gut microbiota in gut-brain communication. Front Endocrinol 11:25. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2020.00025
Smith PM, Howitt MR, Panikov N et al (2013) The microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, regulate colonic Treg cell homeostasis. Science 341:569–573. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1241165
Strandwitz P (2018) Neurotransmitter modulation by the gut microbiota. Brain Res 1693:128–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2018.03.015
Strati F, Cavalieri D, Albanese D et al (2017) New evidences on the altered gut microbiota in autism spectrum disorders. Microbiome 5:24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-017-0242-1
Tamburini S, Shen N, Wu HC, Clemente JC (2016) The microbiome in early life: implications for health outcomes. Nat Med 22:713–722. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.4142
Tamtaji OR, Kouchaki E, Salami M et al (2017) The effects of probiotic supplementation on gene expression related to inflammation, insulin, and lipids in patients with multiple sclerosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Am Coll Nutr 36:660–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2017.1347074
Tan AH, Mahadeva S, Thalha AM et al (2014) Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 20:535–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2014.02.019
Tankou SK, Regev K, Healy BC et al (2018) A probiotic modulates the microbiome and immunity in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 83:1147–1161. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.25244
Thorburn AN, Macia L, Mackay CR (2014) Diet, metabolites, and “western-lifestyle” inflammatory diseases. Immunity 40:833–842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2014.05.014
Thursby E, Juge N (2017) Introduction to the human gut microbiota. Biochem J 474:1823–1836. https://doi.org/10.1042/BCJ20160510
Tremlett H, Bauer KC, Appel-Cresswell S et al (2017) The gut microbiome in human neurological disease: a review: gut microbiome. Ann Neurol 81:369–382. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24901
Tremlett H, Fadrosh DW, Faruqi AA et al (2016) Gut microbiota in early pediatric multiple sclerosis: a case−control study. Eur J Neurol 23:1308–1321. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.13026
Tremlett H, Waubant E (2018) The gut microbiota and pediatric multiple sclerosis: recent findings. Neurotherapeutics 15:102–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-017-0574-3
van Kessel SP, Frye AK, El-Gendy AO et al (2019) Gut bacterial tyrosine decarboxylases restrict levels of levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Nat Commun 10:310. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-08294-y
Varrin-Doyer M, Spencer CM, Schulze-Topphoff U et al (2012) Aquaporin 4-specific T cells in neuromyelitis optica exhibit a Th17 bias and recognize clostridium ABC transporter. Ann Neurol 72:53–64. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.23651
Ventura RE, Iizumi T, Battaglia T et al (2019) Gut microbiome of treatment-naïve MS patients of different ethnicities early in disease course. Sci Rep 9:16396. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52894-z
Vogt NM, Kerby RL, Dill-McFarland KA et al (2017) Gut microbiome alterations in Alzheimer’s disease. Sci Rep 7:13537. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-13601-y
Xu R, Wang Q (2016) Towards understanding brain-gut-microbiome connections in Alzheimer’s disease. BMC Syst Biol 10:63. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12918-016-0307-y
Yang D, Zhao D, Ali Shah SZ et al (2019) The role of the gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. Front Neurol 10:1155. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.01155
Vijay N, Morris M (2014) Role of Monocarboxylate transporters in drug delivery to the brain. CPD 20:1487–1498
Wall R, Cryan JF, Ross RP et al (2014) Bacterial neuroactive compounds produced by Psychobiotics. In: Lyte M, Cryan JF (eds) Microbial endocrinology: the microbiota-gut-brain Axis in health and disease. Springer, New York, New York, NY, pp 221–239
Wang L, Christophersen CT, Sorich MJ et al (2011) Low relative abundances of the mucolytic bacterium Akkermansia muciniphila and Bifidobacterium spp. in feces of children with autism. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:6718–6721. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.05212-11
Wu H-J, Wu E (2012) The role of gut microbiota in immune homeostasis and autoimmunity. Gut Microbes 3:4–14. https://doi.org/10.4161/gmic.19320
Zurita MF, Cárdenas PA, Sandoval ME et al (2020) Analysis of gut microbiome, nutrition and immune status in autism spectrum disorder: a case-control study in Ecuador. Gut Microbes 11(3):453–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2019.1662260
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Sundaram, S., Ponnambath, D.K., Nair, S.S. (2022). Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Neurological Disorders. In: Thomas, S. (eds) Human Microbiome . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7672-7_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7672-7_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-16-7671-0
Online ISBN: 978-981-16-7672-7
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)