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Notes
- 1.
“The Weather”, West Australian, January 18, 1910, 6.
- 2.
Joseph Cook, quoted in Henry P. Frei, Japan’s Southward Advance and Australia: From the Sixteenth Century to World War II (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1991), 87.
- 3.
Naoko Shimazu, Japan, Race, and Equality: The Racial Equality Proposal of 1919 (London: New York: Routledge, 1998), 128.
- 4.
Kalgoorlie Western Argus (1910: 24).
- 5.
Andrew Fitzmaurice, “The Genealogy of Terra Nullius,” Australian Historical Studies 38, no. 129 (April 2007): 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1080/10314610708601228.
- 6.
David Robert Walker, Anxious Nation: Australia and the Rise of Asia, 1850–1939, UQP Australian Studies (St. Lucia, Qld.: University of Queensland Press, 1999); Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the International Challenge of Racial Equality (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 152–53.
- 7.
Robert Dixon, Writing the Colonial Adventure: Race, Gender and Nation in Anglo-Australian Popular Fiction, 1875–1914 (Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press, 1995), https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139085038; Neville K. Meaney, “The 1890s: Australian Literature and Literary Culture,” in The 1890s: Australian Literature and Literary Culture, ed. Ken Stewart (St. Lucia, Qld.: Portland, Or.: University of Queensland Press, 1996), 228–63; Catriona Ross, “Paranoid Projections: Australian Novels of Asian Invasion,” Antipodes: A Global Journal of Australian / New Zealand Literature 23, no. 1 (2009): 11–16; Christopher Kelen, “Hymns for and from White Australia,” in Postcolonial Whiteness: A Critical Reader on Race and Empire, ed. Alfred J. Lopez (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005), 208; Stefanie Affeldt, “‘White’ Nation—‘White’ Angst: The Literary Invasion of Australia,” in Racism and Modernity. Festschrift for Wulf D. Hund, ed. Sabine Ritter and Iris Wigger (Berlin et al.: Lit Verlag, 2011), 222–35.
- 8.
Andrew Markus, “Of Continuities and Discontinuities: Reflections on a Century of Australian Immigration Control,” in Legacies of White Australia: Race, Culture and Nation, ed. Laksiri Jayasuriya, David Walker, and Jan Gothard (Crawley, WA: University of Western Australia Press, 2003), 178.
- 9.
Stefanie Affeldt and Wulf D. Hund, “‘Racism’ Down Under: The Prehistory of a Concept in Australia,” Australian Studies Journal|Zeitschrift für Australienstudien 33/34 (2020, 2019): 11.
- 10.
Charles H. Pearson, National Life and Character. A Forecast (London, New York: Macmillan & Co. of Australia, 1893), 17.
- 11.
Shire of Broome (2014: 8).
- 12.
Tanya Edwards, Sarah Yu, and P. L. Dodson, Lustre: Pearling & Australia (Welshpool: Western Australian Museum, 2018), 16.
- 13.
Henry Reynolds, North of Capricorn: The Untold Story of Australia’s North (Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 2003), vii.
- 14.
Nota bene, the everyday implementation of ‘whiteness’ was far more intricate than its theory finds expression in these endeavours. The question of who was considered ‘suitable to fend off the ‘coloured tide’ was a complicated matter. The discrimination against southern Europeans as ‘not-white-enough’ and Maltese as British but part of the ‘black menace’ show the malleability of ‘whiteness’ and the incongruence of ‘white’ and ‘European’/‘British’ (for instance, Douglass 1995; York 1990)—in particular because against the background of the ‘yellow peril’, these southern Europeans were then integrated into the project of populating and defending the distant northern shores.
- 15.
Stefanie Affeldt, Consuming Whiteness. Australian Racism and the ‘White Sugar’ Campaign (Berlin et al.: Lit Verlag, 2014).
- 16.
Stefanie Affeldt, “‘The White Experiment’: Racism and the Broome Pearl-Shelling Industry,” Anglica 28, no. 3 (January 15, 2019): 43–58, https://doi.org/10.7311/0860-5734.28.3.05; John Bailey, The White Divers of Broome. The True Story of a Fatal Experiment, 5th ed. (Sydney: Pan MacMillan, 2004).
- 17.
Department of External Affairs (1913: 6–7).
- 18.
- 19.
James Stanlaw, “Japanese Emigration and Immigration. From Meiji to the Modern,” in Japanese Diasporas: Unsung Pasts, Conflicting Presents and Uncertain Futures, ed. Nobuko Adachi (London et al.: Routledge, 2009), 47, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203968840.
- 20.
- 21.
Humphrey McQueen, Social Sketches of Australia, 1888–2001 (St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 2004), 66–67.
- 22.
From 1904, Japanese tourists, students and merchants received a one-year-permit of entry without the administration of the dictation test (Robin Gerster and Melissa Miles, Pacific Exposures: Photography and the Australia–Japan Relationship [Canberra: Australian National University Press, 2018], 47). When the certificate expired or was cancelled (which could happen at any time), the person was treated as a prohibited immigrant and would be deported from the country. The exemption system was replaced with permits contingent on specific purposes by the 1958 Migration Act (Tavan 2005: 11, 104).
- 23.
For an extensive collection of “Certificates Exempting from Dictation Test”, see the project ‘The real face of White Australia’, https://www.realfaceofwhiteaustralia.net.
- 24.
David Carlisle Stanley Sissons, “Japanese,” in The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation,Its People and Their Origins, ed. James Jupp (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 522.
- 25.
Castles et al. (2014: 47).
- 26.
Regina Ganter, “The Wakayama Triangle: Japanese Heritage of North Australia,” Journal of Australian Studies 23, no. 61 (1999): 56.
- 27.
Yūichi Murakami, “Australia’s Immigration Legislation, 1893–1901: The Japanese Response,” in Relationships: Japan and Australia, 1870s–1950s, ed. Vera C. Mackie and Paul Anthony Francis Jones (Melbourne: Melbourne University History Monographs, 2001), 47.
- 28.
Miles and Warren (2017: 6).
- 29.
David Carlisle Stanley Sissons, “The Japanese in the Australian Pearling Industry,” Queensland Heritage 3, no. 10 (1979): 9.
- 30.
Kalgoorlie Miner (1903: 6).
- 31.
Sissons, “Japanese,” 522.
- 32.
Neville K. Meaney, Towards a New Vision. Australia and Japan across Time, 2nd ed. (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press Ltd, 2007), 90.
- 33.
Age (1899: 7).
- 34.
Joanna Sassoon, “E. L. Mitchell and the Imaginary Broome,” History of Photography 23, no. 2 (1999): 50.
- 35.
Broome Historical Society & Museum.
- 36.
Norman Bartlett, The Pearl Seekers (London: Andrew Melrose, 1954), 25.
- 37.
John P. S. Bach, The Pearling Industry of Australia. Social and Economic Development, from Its Inception to 1955 (Newcastle: University of New South Wales, 1955), 272.
- 38.
Martínez and Vickers (2015: 4).
- 39.
Regina Ganter, Mixed Relations. Asian-Aboriginal Contact in North Australia (Crawley: University of Western Australia Press, 2006), 70.
- 40.
Sassoon (1999: 149).
- 41.
Reynolds, North of Capricorn, 128.
- 42.
Christine Choo, “Inter-Ethnic Conflict in Broome, Western Australia: The Riots of 1907, 1914 and 1920 between Japanese and Other Asians,” Continuum 25, no. 4 (2011): 466.
- 43.
Affeldt and Hund, “‘Racism’ Down Under”.
- 44.
Frei (1984: 79).
- 45.
Scientific American (1873: 279).
- 46.
Walker (2012: 75).
- 47.
Morning Post (1904: 3).
- 48.
W. E. B. Du Bois, The Color Line Belts the World. Collier’s Weekly (October 20), 30.
- 49.
Gerster and Miles, Pacific Exposures.
- 50.
David Lee, “The Australian Delegation to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference: A Biography,” Australian Journal of Biography and History 4, no. 2 (December 3, 2020): 131–48, https://doi.org/10.22459/AJBH.04.2020.07.
- 51.
Martínez and Vickers (2015: 106–107).
- 52.
Sickert (2003: 67).
- 53.
- 54.
Melissa Miles and Kate Warren, “The Japanese Photographers of Broome: Photography and Cross-Cultural Encounter,” History of Photography 41, no. 1 (2017): 17.
- 55.
Broome Chronicle and Nor’West Advertiser (1911b: 2).
- 56.
Ibid.
- 57.
Choo, “Inter-Ethnic Conflict in Broome, Western Australia”.
- 58.
Broome Chronicle and Nor’West Advertiser (1909a: 3).
- 59.
Pierre Bourdieu, The Forms of Capital. In Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, eds. John G. Richardson, 241–258 (New York [et al.]: Greenwood Press).
- 60.
Castles et al. (2014: 40).
- 61.
Castles et al. (2014: 37).
- 62.
Home and Territories Department (1925: 201).
- 63.
- 64.
Rohan Howitt, “The Japanese Antarctic Expedition and the Idea of White Australia,” Australian Historical Studies 49, no. 4 (2018): 523.
- 65.
Commonwealth (1909: 2684); John Edgar deBurgh Norman and G. Verity Norman, A Pearling Master’s Journey: In the Wake of the Schooner Mist (Strathfield: John E. deB Norman, 2007), 145.
- 66.
Alastair Bonnett, “From the Crises of Whiteness to Western Supremacism,” Australian Critical Race and Whiteness Studies Association Journal 1 (2005): 8–20.
- 67.
Daily News (1909: 12).
- 68.
Coolgardie Miner (1909: 2).
- 69.
- 70.
Commonwealth, 2685, Stride and Louws, 157.
- 71.
“Meetings,” West Australian, August 27, 1909, 7.
- 72.
Home and Territories Department (1925: 194).
- 73.
Home and Territories Department (1925: 192).
- 74.
Kalgoorlie Western Argus (1909: 30).
- 75.
The Argus (1909: 8).
- 76.
Broome Chronicle and Nor’West Advertiser (1909c: 2).
- 77.
Broome Chronicle and Nor’West Advertiser (1909b: 3). Though there might have been some reason, or at least motivation, to complain. Allegations of the “insanitary state of the hospital” surfaced from time to time in the local newspaper but were—except for the “want of paint throughout the building”—“found […] without foundation” (Broome Chronicle and Nor’West Advertiser 1910a: 2) and the European doctor was also not free from suspicions of inadequate work moral (Broome Chronicle and Nor’West Advertiser 1911a: 2).
- 78.
Barrier Miner (1909: 2).
- 79.
Western Australia (1909a: 97).
- 80.
Herald (1909: 3).
- 81.
Western Australia (1909b: 117).
- 82.
Fittingly, these businessmen were not only involved in the Thursday Island pearling industry but also in the Queensland sugar industry and its ‘whitening’ through the deportation of the South Sea Islanders. John Bailey, The White Divers of Broome. The True Story of a Fatal Experiment, 5th ed. (Sydney: Pan Macmillan, 2004), 196; Affeldt, Consuming Whiteness. Australian Racism and the ‘White Sugar’ Campaign, 185–89.
- 83.
Daily Telegraph (1909: 1). Anglophone Australian newspapers oftentimes gave the name as “Yawatu Maru”.
- 84.
Daily Telegraph (1909: 3).
- 85.
Julia Martínez and Adrian Vickers, The Pearl Frontier: Indonesian Labor and Indigenous Encounters in Australia’s Northern Trading Network (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 2015), 84.
- 86.
Daily Telegraph (1909: 3).
- 87.
Sydney Morning Herald (1909: 12).
- 88.
Leader (1909: 45).
- 89.
Sydney Morning Herald (1905: 1).
- 90.
Daily Commercial News and Shipping List (1909: 4).
- 91.
Noreen Jones, Number 2 Home: A Story of Japanese Pioneers in Australia (Fremantle, W. A: Fremantle Arts Centre Press, 2002), 17.
- 92.
The Sun (1910: 7).
- 93.
- 94.
Stefanie Affeldt and Wulf D. Hund, “Conflicts in Racism: Broome and White Australia,” Race & Class 61, no. 2 (October 2019): 47, https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396819871412.
- 95.
Broome Chronicle and Nor’West Advertiser (1910b: 2).
- 96.
Jones, Number 2 Home, 79.
- 97.
Broome Chronicle and Nor’West Advertiser (1911b: 2). Upon the latter purchase of the hospital by the Beagle Bay Mission, the hospital was deemed “one of the finest buildings” found in town (West Australian 1935: 17).
- 98.
Home and Territories Department (1925: 105–106).
- 99.
Home and Territories Department (1925: 18, 113–114).
- 100.
Broome Chronicle and Nor’West Advertiser (1911c: 2); Peter Stride and A. Louws, “The Japanese Hospital in Broome, 1910–1926. A Harmony of Contrasts.,” The Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh 45, no. 2 (2015): 161.
- 101.
Quoted in Norman and Norman, A Pearling Master’s Journey: In the Wake of the Schooner Mist, 149.
- 102.
Sunday Times (1912: 9).
- 103.
Affeldt, “The White Experiment,” 51; Bailey, The White Divers of Broome. The True Story of a Fatal Experiment, 162.
- 104.
Nor’West Echo (1914: 3).
- 105.
Norman and Norman, A Pearling Master’s Journey: In the Wake of the Schooner Mist, 154.
- 106.
Kyoto University (1997: 853).
- 107.
Rei Miyata, [宮田, 怜], Collection of examples for research inquiries. Case No. 108 [
]. In Library of the Faculty of Medicine [日本医学図書館協会] (4) 64: 245–246, 2017.
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Many thanks to Alice Witt for the translations from Japanese.
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Affeldt, S. (2022). “… polished and cultured, speaking English fluently” The First Japanese Doctor of Broome. In: Yamamoto, T. (eds) Documenting Mobility in the Japanese Empire and Beyond. New Directions in East Asian History. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6391-8_5
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