Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Stroke Revisited ((STROREV))

  • 524 Accesses

Abstract

Statins, also known as β-Hydroxy β-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors, are a class of drugs frequently prescribed for lowering cholesterols. The statins have been used for more than 30 years for the prevention of stroke and coronary artery disease. Their primary mechanism of action is via inhibition of the mevalonate pathway, resulting in a decrease of cholesterol and isoprenoid synthesis. Reduction of cholesterol synthesis enhances the uptake of extracellular low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) via upregulation of LDL-C receptors. The inhibition of isoprenoid synthesis results in the so-called pleiotropic effects of statins, including anti-inflammatory action, antioxidant effect, improvement of endothelial function, prevention of platelet aggregation, plaque stabilization, and regression of atherosclerosis. There are now seven commercially available statins, including Rosuvastatin, Atorvastatin, Simvastatin, Fluvastatin, Pravastatin, Lovastatin, and Pitavastatin. The key pharmacological properties of each statin are slightly different according to their solubility and chemical features. As for their implications on stroke trials, the association between pre- and post-stroke statins on stroke-related outcomes is not always consistent. Nevertheless, statins reduced the risk of stroke by 24.5–48%.

Lipid-lowering agents include several classes of medications such as β-Hydroxy β-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitor known as statin, cholesterol absorption inhibitor, fibric acid derivative, bile acid sequestrant, and nicotinic acid. These drugs differ in mechanism of action and common side effects and the type and degree of lipid reduction. In this chapter, we reviewed the history of statin development, mechanism of action, and drug characteristics of each statin. We also described the pleiotropic effects of statin other than lowering lipid levels on cardiovascular outcomes. Lastly, we summarized the implication of statin administration on several stroke-related outcomes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Keys A, Taylor HL, Blackburn H, Brozek J, Anderson JT, Simonson E. Coronary heart disease among Minnesota business and professional men followed fifteen years. Circulation. 1963;28:381–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Dawber TR, Meadors GF, Moore FE Jr. Epidemiological approaches to heart disease: the Framingham study. Am J Public Health Nations Health. 1951;41(3):279–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Tobert JA. Lovastatin and beyond: the history of the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2003;2(7):517–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Endo A, Kuroda M. Citrinin, an inhibitor of cholesterol synthesis. J Antibiot. 1976;29(8):841–3.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Endo A, Kuroda M, Tsujita Y. ML-236A, ML-236B, and ML-236C, new inhibitors of cholesterogenesis produced by Penicillium citrinium. J Antibiot. 1976;29(12):1346–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Mabuchi H, Haba T, Tatami R, Miyamoto S, Sakai Y, Wakasugi T, et al. Effect of an inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methyglutaryl coenzyme a reductase on serum lipoproteins and ubiquinone-10-levels in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia. N Engl J Med. 1981;305(9):478–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Tsujita Y, Kuroda M, Tanzawa K, Kitano N, Endo A. Hypolipidemic effects in dogs of ML-236B, a competitive inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme a reductase. Atherosclerosis. 1979;32(3):307–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Endo A. A historical perspective on the discovery of statins. Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci. 2010;86(5):484–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Alberts AW, Chen J, Kuron G, Hunt V, Huff J, Hoffman C, et al. Mevinolin: a highly potent competitive inhibitor of hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme a reductase and a cholesterol-lowering agent. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1980;77(7):3957–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Tobert JA, Bell GD, Birtwell J, James I, Kukovetz WR, Pryor JS, et al. Cholesterol-lowering effect of mevinolin, an inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme a reductase, in healthy volunteers. J Clin Invest. 1982;69(4):913–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Endo A. A gift from nature: the birth of the statins. Nat Med. 2008;14(10):1050–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Salami JA, Warraich H, Valero-Elizondo J, Spatz ES, Desai NR, Rana JS, et al. National Trends in statin use and expenditures in the US adult population from 2002 to 2013: insights from the medical expenditure panel survey. JAMA Cardiol. 2017;2(1):56–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Sirtori CR. The pharmacology of statins. Pharmacol Res. 2014;88:3–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Espenshade PJ, Hughes AL. Regulation of sterol synthesis in eukaryotes. Annu Rev Genet. 2007;41:401–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Schachter M. Chemical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of statins: an update. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 2005;19(1):117–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. McTaggart F, Buckett L, Davidson R, Holdgate G, McCormick A, Schneck D, et al. Preclinical and clinical pharmacology of Rosuvastatin, a new 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme a reductase inhibitor. Am J Cardiol. 2001;87(5A):28B–32B.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. McTavish D, Sorkin EM. Pravastatin. A review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential in hypercholesterolaemia. Drugs. 1991;42(1):65–89.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Garnett WR. Interactions with hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme a reductase inhibitors. Am J Health Syst Pharm: AJHP : official journal of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 1995;52(15):1639–45.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Corsini A, Bellosta S, Baetta R, Fumagalli R, Paoletti R, Bernini F. New insights into the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties of statins. Pharmacol Ther. 1999;84(3):413–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Hamelin BA, Turgeon J. Hydrophilicity/lipophilicity: relevance for the pharmacology and clinical effects of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 1998;19(1):26–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Bottorff M, Hansten P. Long-term safety of hepatic hydroxymethyl glutaryl coenzyme a reductase inhibitors: the role of metabolism-monograph for physicians. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(15):2273–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Sica DA, Gehr TW. Rhabdomyolysis and statin therapy: relevance to the elderly. Am J Geriatr Cardiol. 2002;11(1):48–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Knopp RH. Drug treatment of lipid disorders. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(7):498–511.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Simonson SG, Martin PD, Mitchell P, Schneck DW, Lasseter KC, Warwick MJ. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of rosuvastatin in subjects with hepatic impairment. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;58(10):669–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Karlson BW, Palmer MK, Nicholls SJ, Lundman P, Barter PJ. A VOYAGER meta-analysis of the impact of statin therapy on low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride levels in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Am J Cardiol. 2016;117(9):1444–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Jones PH, Davidson MH, Stein EA, Bays HE, McKenney JM, Miller E, et al. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of rosuvastatin versus atorvastatin, simvastatin, and pravastatin across doses (STELLAR* trial). Am J Cardiol. 2003;92(2):152–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL, Beam C, Birtcher KK, Blumenthal RS, et al. 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA guideline on the Management of Blood Cholesterol: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on clinical practice guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;73(24):3168–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Barter PJ, Brandrup-Wognsen G, Palmer MK, Nicholls SJ. Effect of statins on HDL-C: a complex process unrelated to changes in LDL-C: analysis of the VOYAGER database. J Lipid Res. 2010;51(6):1546–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Niesor EJ, Schwartz GG, Perez A, Stauffer A, Durrwell A, Bucklar-Suchankova G, et al. Statin-induced decrease in ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 expression via microRNA33 induction may counteract cholesterol efflux to high-density lipoprotein. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2015;29(1):7–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Rosenson RS, Baker SK, Jacobson TA, Kopecky SL, Parker BA. The National Lipid Association’s muscle safety expert P. an assessment by the statin muscle safety task force: 2014 update. J Clin Lipidol. 2014;8(3 Suppl):S58–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Cohen DE, Anania FA, Chalasani N, National Lipid Association Statin Safety Task Force Liver Expert P. An assessment of statin safety by hepatologists. Am J Cardiol. 2006;97(8A):77C–81C.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Wang KL, Liu CJ, Chao TF, Huang CM, Wu CH, Chen SJ, et al. Statins, risk of diabetes, and implications on outcomes in the general population. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(14):1231–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Liao JK, Laufs U. Pleiotropic effects of statins. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2005;45:89–118.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Goldstein JL, Brown MS. Regulation of the mevalonate pathway. Nature. 1990;343(6257):425–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Cho KJ, Hill MM, Chigurupati S, Du G, Parton RG, Hancock JF. Therapeutic levels of the hydroxmethylglutaryl-coenzyme a reductase inhibitor lovastatin activate ras signaling via phospholipase D2. Mol Cell Biol. 2011;31(6):1110–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Shimizu T, Liao JK. Rho kinases and cardiac remodeling. Circ J. 2016;80(7):1491–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Hattori T, Shimokawa H, Higashi M, Hiroki J, Mukai Y, Tsutsui H, et al. Long-term inhibition of rho-kinase suppresses left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction in mice. Circulation. 2004;109(18):2234–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Rawlings R, Nohria A, Liu PY, Donnelly J, Creager MA, Ganz P, et al. Comparison of effects of rosuvastatin (10 mg) versus atorvastatin (40 mg) on rho kinase activity in Caucasian men with a previous atherosclerotic event. Am J Cardiol. 2009;103(4):437–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Sawada N, Li Y, Liao JK. Novel aspects of the roles of Rac1 GTPase in the cardiovascular system. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2010;10(2):116–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Miller YI, Choi SH, Fang L, Tsimikas S. Lipoprotein modification and macrophage uptake: role of pathologic cholesterol transport in atherogenesis. Subcell Biochem. 2010;51:229–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Custodis F, Eberl M, Kilter H, Bohm M, Laufs U. Association of RhoGDIalpha with Rac1 GTPase mediates free radical production during myocardial hypertrophy. Cardiovasc Res. 2006;71(2):342–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Wassmann S, Laufs U, Baumer AT, Muller K, Ahlbory K, Linz W, et al. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors improve endothelial dysfunction in normocholesterolemic hypertension via reduced production of reactive oxygen species. Hypertension. 2001;37(6):1450–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Yano M, Matsumura T, Senokuchi T, Ishii N, Murata Y, Taketa K, et al. Statins activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma through extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent cyclooxygenase-2 expression in macrophages. Circ Res. 2007;100(10):1442–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Paumelle R, Blanquart C, Briand O, Barbier O, Duhem C, Woerly G, et al. Acute antiinflammatory properties of statins involve peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha via inhibition of the protein kinase C signaling pathway. Circ Res. 2006;98(3):361–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Pucci A, Formato L, Muscio M, Brscic E, Pizzimenti S, Ferroni F, et al. PPARgamma in coronary atherosclerosis: in vivo expression pattern and correlations with hyperlipidemic status and statin treatment. Atherosclerosis. 2011;218(2):479–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Chen M, Li H, Wang G, Shen X, Zhao S, Su W. Atorvastatin prevents advanced glycation end products (AGEs)-induced cardiac fibrosis via activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma). Metabolism. 2016;65(4):441–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Bouitbir J, Charles AL, Echaniz-Laguna A, Kindo M, Daussin F, Auwerx J, et al. Opposite effects of statins on mitochondria of cardiac and skeletal muscles: a ‘mitohormesis’ mechanism involving reactive oxygen species and PGC-1. Eur Heart J. 2012;33(11):1397–407.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Libby P, Tabas I, Fredman G, Fisher EA. Inflammation and its resolution as determinants of acute coronary syndromes. Circ Res. 2014;114(12):1867–79.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Tousoulis D, Psarros C, Demosthenous M, Patel R, Antoniades C, Stefanadis C. Innate and adaptive inflammation as a therapeutic target in vascular disease: the emerging role of statins. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63(23):2491–502.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Kagami S, Owada T, Kanari H, Saito Y, Suto A, Ikeda K, et al. Protein geranylgeranylation regulates the balance between Th17 cells and Foxp3+ regulatory T cells. Int Immunol. 2009;21(6):679–89.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Gauthier TW, Scalia R, Murohara T, Guo JP, Lefer AM. Nitric oxide protects against leukocyte-endothelium interactions in the early stages of hypercholesterolemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1995;15(10):1652–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Braun-Dullaeus RC, Mann MJ, Dzau VJ. Cell cycle progression: new therapeutic target for vascular proliferative disease. Circulation. 1998;98(1):82–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Chen Z, Fukutomi T, Zago AC, Ehlers R, Detmers PA, Wright SD, et al. Simvastatin reduces neointimal thickening in low-density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice after experimental angioplasty without changing plasma lipids. Circulation. 2002;106(1):20–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Werner C, Laufs U. Moving beyond the “LDL hypothesis”. VASA Zeitschrift fur Gefasskrankheiten. 2015;44(5):333–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, Genest J, Gotto AM Jr, Kastelein JJ, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(21):2195–207.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Oesterle A, Laufs U, Liao JK. Pleiotropic effects of statins on the cardiovascular system. Circ Res. 2017;120(1):229–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Ezekowitz MD, Ganz P, Oliver MF, Waters D, et al. Effects of atorvastatin on early recurrent ischemic events in acute coronary syndromes: the MIRACL study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2001;285(13):1711–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Landmesser U, Bahlmann F, Mueller M, Spiekermann S, Kirchhoff N, Schulz S, et al. Simvastatin versus ezetimibe: pleiotropic and lipid-lowering effects on endothelial function in humans. Circulation. 2005;111(18):2356–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Matsue Y, Matsumura A, Suzuki M, Hashimoto Y, Yoshida M. Differences in action of atorvastatin and ezetimibe in lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and effect on endothelial function: randomized controlled trial. Circ J. 2013;77(7):1791–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Fichtlscherer S, Schmidt-Lucke C, Bojunga S, Rossig L, Heeschen C, Dimmeler S, et al. Differential effects of short-term lipid lowering with ezetimibe and statins on endothelial function in patients with CAD: clinical evidence for ‘pleiotropic’ functions of statin therapy. Eur Heart J. 2006;27(10):1182–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Sahebkar A, Di Giosia P, Stamerra CA, Grassi D, Pedone C, Ferretti G, et al. Effect of monoclonal antibodies to PCSK9 on high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels: a meta-analysis of 16 randomized controlled treatment arms. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2016;81(6):1175–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Yaghi S, Elkind MS. Lipids and cerebrovascular disease: research and practice. Stroke. 2015;46(11):3322–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Heart Protection Study Collaborative G. MRC/BHF heart protection study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360(9326):7–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Everett BM, Glynn RJ, MacFadyen JG, Ridker PM. Rosuvastatin in the prevention of stroke among men and women with elevated levels of C-reactive protein: justification for the use of statins in prevention: an intervention trial evaluating Rosuvastatin (JUPITER). Circulation. 2010;121(1):143–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Amarenco P, Bogousslavsky J, Callahan A 3rd, Goldstein LB, Hennerici M, Rudolph AE, et al. High-dose atorvastatin after stroke or transient ischemic attack. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(6):549–59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Shook SJ, Gupta R, Vora NA, Tievsky AL, Katzan I, Krieger DW. Statin use is independently associated with smaller infarct volume in nonlacunar MCA territory stroke. J Neuroimaging: Official Journal of the American Society of Neuroimaging. 2006;16(4):341–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Ovbiagele B, Saver JL, Starkman S, Kim D, Ali LK, Jahan R, et al. Statin enhancement of collateralization in acute stroke. Neurology. 2007;68(24):2129–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Hong KS, Lee JS. Statins in acute ischemic stroke: a systematic review. Journal of stroke. 2015;17(3):282–301.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Biffi A, Devan WJ, Anderson CD, Cortellini L, Furie KL, Rosand J, et al. Statin treatment and functional outcome after ischemic stroke: case-control and meta-analysis. Stroke. 2011;42(5):1314–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Squizzato A, Romualdi E, Dentali F, Ageno W. Statins for acute ischemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;8:CD007551.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Martinez-Ramirez S, Delgado-Mederos R, Marin R, Suarez-Calvet M, Sainz MP, Alejaldre A, et al. Statin pretreatment may increase the risk of symptomatic intracranial haemorrhage in thrombolysis for ischemic stroke: results from a case-control study and a meta-analysis. J Neurol. 2012;259(1):111–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Meseguer E, Mazighi M, Lapergue B, Labreuche J, Sirimarco G, Gonzalez-Valcarcel J, et al. Outcomes after thrombolysis in AIS according to prior statin use: a registry and review. Neurology. 2012;79(17):1817–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Ni Chroinin D, Asplund K, Asberg S, Callaly E, Cuadrado-Godia E, Diez-Tejedor E, et al. Statin therapy and outcome after ischemic stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies and randomized trials. Stroke. 2013;44(2):448–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Cappellari M, Bovi P, Moretto G, Zini A, Nencini P, Sessa M, et al. The THRombolysis and STatins (THRaST) study. Neurology. 2013;80(7):655–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Byung-Chul Lee .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Lee, M., Lee, BC. (2021). Statins. In: Lee, SH., Kang, M.K. (eds) Stroke Revisited: Dyslipidemia in Stroke. Stroke Revisited. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3923-4_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3923-4_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-16-3922-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-16-3923-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics