Abstract
The present essay is primarily a critical engagement with colonial ideology and tribal world view as reflected in the mode of tribe–British relations. It examines general nature and character of colonialism in brief; situates tribes in pre-colonial socio-political matrix of interactions among the communities in India; and conceptualises an analytical frame to make a critical review of papers included in the volume. The critical review places the mind of the coloniser and the colonised at the centre. The papers, however, are premised over distinct thematic perspectives while engaging with tribe–British relations, particularly on the topics of the process of colonisation and tribal resistance. The essay, on the other hand, is an attempt at exploring the psychology of both the coloniser and the colonised underlying their interactions as presented in respective papers. Moreover, the essay further engages with a multidisciplinary approach to tribal historiography during colonial period and thus adds to the growing scope of tribal studies.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
Primacy is given to tribal perspective and so the phrase Tribe-British relation is constructed. It is not a first time engagement. For example, in subaltern studies relating to tribes, tribal perspective is often found at the core of analysis. The perspective, however, conforms to subaltern framework of study. I have proposed it in a multidisciplinary perspective in tribal studies.
- 3.
See Mill 1817, Mackenzie 1884/1994, Hunter 1872 & 1893, McPherson 1909, O'Malley 1938, Reid 1942 and Tod 1920 for an understanding of colonial bias in presenting tribes. Recent works (for example see Rycroft 2006) also are not free from such conditioned mind. However, scholars revisiting tribal response to colonial administration are found using colonial idioms to interrogate underlying perspective (Bates et al., 2014).
- 4.
History as we understand as a discipline was not a strong point of the scholarship of administrator-scholars.
- 5.
Colonial ideology evolved over centuries, culminated into imperialism and created its own disliking at the whole enterprise. The stages were expressed in poems written during sixteenth century to early part of twentieth century. The poems have been collected by Brooks and Faulkner (1996). The papers included in this volume also point to different dimensions of ‘divide and rule’.
- 6.
- 7.
White Man’s Burden is the title of the poem by imperialist poet Rudyard Kipling with the sub-title The United States and the Philippine Islands. It was published first time in The Times (London) on 4th February, 1899. See Alison Chapman (2002) for details.
- 8.
Ethnocentrism is a colonial concept attributed to characterise tribal sense of belonging to the community; it points to an exclusive way of thinking. Since Eurocentric perspective has exclusiveness in thought I have used the word ethnocentric as an explanatory concept. The concept reveals colonial mind of perceiving the tribes and interpretation of tribal mind thought it. A little elaboration of the concept of ethnocentrism in the context of tribe is taken up in relevant paragraphs to argue that the attribution is misleading and a reflection of European sense of exclusiveness.
- 9.
- 10.
The Oraons, who is a tribe in Jharkhand, also spread over Odisha. Their original home land was somewhere in hills of South India from where they migrated. Rohtasgarh of Bihar was their last settlement from where they migrated to avoid Muslim attack, much before the colonial rule. The Mudma fair in Mandar block of Ranchi district held every year is a conglomeration of Oraons to commemorate their migration from Rohtasgarh.
- 11.
It is clearly evident from the slogans of the leaders. Birsa Munda’s inspiring slogan was, Abua Raj Ete Jana, Maharani Raj Tudu Jana (People’s rule will come and Maharani’s rule will go). Sidu and Kanho’s call was, Mahajan, Zumidar Police aa raj ren gujukama (The rule of Mahajan, Zamindar and Police must be destroyed).
- 12.
Efforts to belittle people’s freedom movement by giving it a name reflect colonial misunderstanding of Indian reality. It also reflects colonial attitude towards tribal culture. In this context it is worth citing from Calcutta Review. Colonial writing presented Santal rebellion as ‘the fanatical spirit of religious superstition’ as well as Santals’ attachment to the ‘strong drinks and wild dance which fanned the lurking flame’ (cited in Jha, 1983: 210).
- 13.
Shortly after the Crusades in Europe, the Age of Discoveries or Explorations began. ‘Sailors turned their ships both toward the Americas and toward the Far East’ with a purpose to ‘seek out, discover, and whatever lies, countries, regions or provinces of the heathen and infidels, which before this time have been unknown to all Christians.’ (Swain, 1994: 349 &353). Such voyages led to the growth of geographical knowledge, travel of the merchants and missionaries to different parts of the world, and establishment of trading posts in the Far East (Swain, 1994: 350). Establishment of trading posts was followed by territorial occupation and control of political power and explorations. Stories and accounts of voyagers and traders influenced further zeal of expeditions. For example Darwin planned his expedition after reading the inspiring account of Von Humboldt and got the opportunity of travelling abroad a survey ship, HMS Beagle, as a naturalist on 27th December 1831 from Davenport, England.(Darwin, 1909:11 and see Browne, 1995). The Age of Explorations led to Enlightenment and there was a new political consciousness and ‘Nationalism’ came into prominence in Europe. (Swain 1994:353). This explains two phases of colonialism in India: first one by the East India Company and then the Government of Britain with a shift in the core ideology of trade to rule, both accompanied by civilising mission.
- 14.
In Townsend (1941:37) it is obvious that colonialism underlies interdisciplinary perspectives. In this context planning a volume like this across disciplines to examine Tribe-British relations is an important academic engagement.
- 15.
Tennyson had written it on the occasion of Queen Victoria’s Birthday. The other lines of the couplet are:
To all our noble sons, the strong
New England of the Southern Pole!
To England under Indian skies,
To those dark millions of her realm!’
The poem glorifies racial dimension of colonialism and reveals imperialistic mentality.
- 16.
From the poem Greenland's Icy Mountains, written by Bishop Reginald Heber in 1819. It remained as an important part of Sunday sermon in aid of The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts.
- 17.
Establishment of National Congress in 1885 by A.O.Hume underlies the colonial policy of appeasement to avoid trouble, particularly, to prevent any other conflict of 1857 magnitude (see Sampath, 2019:20-21).
- 18.
- 19.
For a brief discussion on approaches (see de Souza, 2017:147–149).
- 20.
The policy of appeasement used in colonial India should be distinguished from the one that Neville Chamberlain’s Government of Britain used in 1930 s to buy peace from dictators. But scholars trace its origin in mid-nineteenth century foreign policy of the Britain (see Kennedy 1976). The policy has a reciprocal element based on the principle of market exchange- take this from us and give that of yours- your land, autonomy, loyalty; whatever is of our interest.
- 21.
- 22.
Use of the phrase ‘civilised life’ seems something superfluous. The policy divided the unity of the Paharias, set one section against the majority and replaced traditional system of governance with the creation of Assembly for colonial interest. Moreover, the administration played a mind game to captivate the mind of a section of society through temptation, by providing employment and pension. Except these changes no other changes have been reported which could be called civilisation.
- 23.
Appointment of dobhasis from among chiefs can be argued as the result of colonial understanding of social structure. See Zimo in this volume to know selection procedure of dobhasis.
- 24.
In this context it can be argued that history was not a strong point of Mills’ scholarship. He overlooked the historical process that led to migration, social formation, and emergence of governance. His portrayal of Changki Nagas was both naïve and untenable. This trend is noticed among the colonial writers in general (see Jha and Mishra 2006:2).
- 25.
It is a widely recognised fact that the British writers presented tribal culture before international communities in such a way that it was their responsibility, the Whiteman’s Burden to civilise them (see Jha and Mishra 2006:2-3). Tribal ethnography may be viewed as misrepresentation of tribal culture in the light of dominant colonial ideology as it is at present in the light of dominant idea of capitalist economy. In doing so a negative identity of tribe in capitalistic ideological model is constructed (see Jena 2019).
- 26.
Adaptive mindscape is used to introduce and explain a comprehensive interactive space beyond religious syncretism. It is also used to explain the phenomenon of amalgamation in a space marked by dominant and dominated relations, and deliberate efforts initiated by the dominant power.
- 27.
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar for example did not accept the British label Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 and declared it as The Indian War of Independence of 1857. The book was published in London in 1909 in the name of An Indian Nationalist; the publisher is unknown. But its Indian reprint was taken in 1949 in Bombay by Sethani Kampani. Prominent among other nationalist writers are Naoroji 1901, Dutta 1902 and 1904, Majumdar 1988, Datta 1970 and many others.
- 28.
Quite a number of works have been available. To mention a few, Guha 1983 and 2010, Spivak 1988, Bates and Shah, 2014 and Nandy 1983 have made seminal contributions. There are many other historians also. The distinction between nationalist and Marxist is made on the consideration of approaches. Chandra et al. (2016) are also known as Marxist historians.
- 29.
Bijaya Misra informs that a few tribal freedom fighters or their younger generations of Nabarangpur were elected to Odisha Legislative Assembly in nation building process after Independence. The sense of feeling for the nation created during freedom movement remains unshaken through their participation in the formation of democratic government as per the provisions of Indian Constitution. At the same time tribes enjoy their autonomy according to the provisions of the Fifth and Sixth Schedules and safeguards enshrined in the Constitution. The tribes, except in Andaman and Nicobar islands, were part of the interactive process of Indian social formation given the then socio-political climate and are also an integral part at present.
- 30.
When tribes did not live side by side non-tribes as is the case in Nagaland, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh for example, the revolts would appear tribe specific. But the underlying spirit even in apparent tribe specific revolts is quest for freedom. By designating the revolt as tribe specific, the essence of spatial dimension of India’s struggle for freedom is belittled. This is a colonial strategy as is also evident from Verma (b)’s paper (in this section) when the British branded the mass movement as Santal Insurrection and as a ‘localised uprising.’
- 31.
A tribe generally understands the totality of territory and society. This totality is similar to the concept of our understanding of the country. S.C.Roy was well aware of this perspective. So he titled his book on Munda as The Mundas and their Country (Roy,1912). Among the Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh, the word Lemba is used to denote a clan settlement or a multi-clan settlement (see Bath & Yampi, 2004:41). In fact they use the term Lemba among themselves while they refer to India. Arguably, a tribe is not unfamiliar with the idea of a country- a territory, people, society, etc. at a larger scale.
- 32.
Dinesh Narayan Verma in his paper A Critique of Colonial Interpretation of the Santal Insurrection of 1855–1856 (included in this volume) traces this slogan do or die to Santal rebellion. This indicates Indian people’s belief in the philosophy of supreme sacrifice for the cause of freedom from alien rule, or for rashtra (kingdom) as is proclaimed in Chanakya Neeti. Tyajedekam Kulasyaarthe Graamassyarthe Kulam Tyajet. Graamam Janapadasyaarthe Aattmaarthe Prithiveem Tyajat (see Mishra 2020:75). A distinction between self realisation by leaving the world (worldly pleasure) and sacrifice for the mother land is clearly expressed in the verse.
- 33.
‘According to the notion of ‘indirect rule’, the landed aristocracy of India was ‘preserved’ by the colonial state as a means to its functional requirements’ (Singh 2007:16). In case of Bhuiyan rebellion the Bhuiyans revolted against the British in favour of the king. In Kol insurrection, the Kols initially fought against zamindars (landed aristocrats), money-lenders, and other stooge of the administration but later against the British. Moreover, they were in favour of Nagavanshi Raja.
- 34.
- 35.
This is challenged by Jagannath Pathy (1995).
- 36.
What the British record mentions as Naga revolt of 1879–80 is in fact was the Battle of Khonoma (1879-1880), the revolt by a village. See Das in this volume.
- 37.
The identity created during the British rule reflects in many areas. It evident in Portman (1990) that the British assigned name to individual Andamanese and thus created an identity for the consumption of others, particularly the British administration. Similarly, designating Nagas as head hunter (see Tiasunep and Solo 2020:270, fn.12)) or Kandhas as practitioners of human sacrifice (it is contested by Pathy 1995), they recreated identity of people.
- 38.
Alexander Mackenzie used the phrase the North-East Frontier first in his Memorandum on the North-East Frontier of Bengal submitted to the Government in 1869. Later in his book entitled History of the Relations of the Government with the Hill Tribes of the North-East Frontier of Bengal, published by the Bengal Government in 1884, he defined it ‘to denote a boundary line, and to ‘describe a tract’ (Mackanzie 1994:1). The publication house, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, is reprinting it under the title of The North-East Frontier of India since 1979.
- 39.
Manifest destiny is the phrase coined in the United States in 1845 which validated continental acquisitions of the US. At its core underlay the idea of inevitability of the continued territorial expansion of the US. Its advocates, therefore, believed that the US was destined to expand across the entire North American continent. This idea was at the back drop while the construct North East Frontier of Bengal was forwarded.
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Behera, M.C. (2021). Revisiting Tribe–British Relations: Tribal Worldview and Colonial Ideology at Perspective. In: Behera, M.C. (eds) Tribe-British Relations in India. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3424-6_1
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