Abstract
In 207 BC, after the Qin Dynasty (秦, 221–207 BC), the first united Chinese empire was shaken by a massive rebellion of farmers led by CHEN Sheng (陈胜, ?–208 BC) and WU Guang (吴广, ?–208 BC) and eventually brought to its demise, LIU Bang (刘邦, 256–195 BC), a lowly security officer in present-day Xu-zhou, Jiang-su Province, established the Han Dynasty (汉, 202 BC–AD 220). Following this, Chinese feudal society entered a period of development and consolidation.
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Notes
- 1.
“Inaction” in New Remarks 《新语∙无为》: 秦始皇设立刑法, 用车裂杀人, 修筑长城以抵御少数民族, 举措愈多, 国家愈乱, 法令愈多, 犯罪愈烈。秦始皇并非不想治理国家, 但其失去天下, 乃是因劳民伤财、刑罚过重之缘故。
- 2.
“Dao’s Foundation” in New Remarks 《新语∙道基》: 仁者喜欢安定, 义者尊重利益。万事有条不紊, 乃仁义之功绩啊。
- 3.
On Qin’s Error 《过秦论》: 不施行仁政, 攻守之形势发生了变化。
- 4.
“System Unfixed” in New Book 《新书·制不定》: 屠牛坦一早晨宰割十二头牛, 而刀刃不钝, 乃是因其所刮剔割剥时, 皆顺着牛肉肌理啊。在胯骨、大腿骨之地, 则用砍刀或斧头。仁义恩厚, 好比君王之刀刃; 权势法制, 好比君王之斧斤。大势已定, 则权威已足, 再用仁义恩厚笼络人心, 则圣德广布天下归心。
- 5.
“Scrutiny of Rite” in Book of Rite 《礼记·礼察》: 道德教化防患于未然, 法律制裁禁止于已然。
- 6.
“Empress LEU” in Historical Records 《史记·吕后本纪》 by SI-MA Qian.
- 7.
“DONG Zhong-shu” in Book of Han 《汉书·董仲舒传》 by BAN Gu. “Six Arts” (六艺) were initiated in West Zhou (西周, 1046–771 BC) as an education system for ancient Chinese aristocrats, referring to the six basic aspects of Rite, Music, Shooting, Driving, Writing, and Mathematics (礼、乐、射、御、书、数).
- 8.
“Three Guides” (三纲) is the abbreviation for “Monarch is Guide for minister, father is Guide for children, and husband is Guide for wife” (君为臣纲, 父为子纲, 夫为妇纲). “Five Virtues” (五常), i.e. “Five Constant Virtues”, are Benevolence (仁), Righteousness (义), Rite (礼), Wisdom (智), and Faith (信). The “Five Virtues” are significant tenets for carrying out the principle of “Three Guides”: to love others (Benevolence), to extend justice (Righteousness), to respect hierarchy (Rite), to meditate life (Wisdom), and to keep promise (Fidelity).
- 9.
Three Proposals for Sovereignty 《举贤良对策》 by DONG Zhong-shu: 道的根本来自于天, 天不变, 道也不变。
- 10.
“DONG Zhong-shu” in Book of Han 《汉书·董仲舒传》 by BAN Gu: 人承受天命, 本质上超于众生物。在家有父子兄弟之亲情, 在朝有君臣上下之友谊, 聚会相遇, 则有尊老爱幼之规范, 以明确的礼节相互接待, 以欢欣的恩德相互关爱, 此乃人之所以高贵之处。种植五谷作为食物, 种植桑麻作为衣服, 饲养六畜, 驾牛骑马, 圈豹槛虎, 此乃人撷取于天地之灵、高贵于万物之妙。所以孔子说: “天地所生, 人最可贵。” 人明了天性, 知道自己贵于万物; 知道自己贵于万物, 然后知道仁义; 知道仁义, 然后注重礼节; 注重礼节, 然后安处善道; 安处善道, 然后遵循事理; 遵循事理, 然后可称君子。所以孔子说“不知天命, 不能做君子”, 正是此意啊。
- 11.
“DONG Zhong-shu” in Book of Han 《汉书·董仲舒传》by BAN Gu: 王者欲有所作为, 应求其开端于天。天道最大者为阴阳。阳为德教, 阴为刑罚, 刑罚主杀戮, 德教主休养。所以阳常处于盛夏, 务生育养长之事; 阴常处于严冬, 积空虚不用之地。由此可知, 天任用德教, 不用刑罚。天使阳在上面布施, 主管每年收成; 使阴在下面藏伏, 时常出来助阳; 没有阴之帮助, 阳不能独成年岁。以阳为终来完成年岁之名, 此乃天意啊。王者秉承天意行事, 所以任用德教而不用刑罚。刑罚不可用来治理社会, 正如阴不可用来完成年岁。执政而任用刑罚, 乃不顺从天意, 所以先王皆不肯这样做。孔子说: “不教育而杀人, 叫做暴虐。” 对民众施用暴政, 却想使德教普及四海, 毕竟难以办到啊。
- 12.
Explanations of Chun-qiu Annals, Vol. 12《春秋繁露卷十二》 by DONG Zhong-shu.
- 13.
Ibid., Vol. 11.
- 14.
Ibid., Vol. 12.
- 15.
Ibid., Vol. 11: 仁之美好来自于天。天为仁爱, 抚育万物, 变化并使之出生, 养育并使之长成, 其功绩无尽, 周而复始, 将一切奉献于人。考察上天之用意, 乃是无尽之仁爱也。人接受上天之使命, 取其仁爱而变得仁爱啊。
- 16.
The ancient Chinese believed that the world is fundamentally composed of Five Elements: Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth, and according to the Book of History《尚书·洪范》, these elements were supposed to function independently and correlatively: “Water is to soak and descend; Fire, to blaze and ascend; Wood, to be crooked or straight; Metal, to obey or change; Earth, to sow or harvest. From soaking and descending comes saltiness, from blazing and ascending comes bitterness, from crookedness and straightness comes sourness, from obeying and changing comes acridness, and from sowing and harvesting comes sweetness” (水曰润下, 火曰炎上, 木曰曲直, 金曰从革, 土爰稼穑。润下作咸, 炎上作苦, 曲直作酸, 从革作辛, 稼穑作甘: 水向下润湿, 火向上燃烧, 木可弯曲和伸直, 金可顺从和改变, 土可播种和收获。向下润湿生咸, 向上燃烧生苦, 弯曲和伸直生酸, 顺从和改变生辣, 播种和收获生甜). And it is said while the Five Elements produce one another: Wood produces Fire, Fire does Earth, Earth does Metal, Metal does Water, Water does Wood (木生火, 火生土, 土生金, 金生水, 水生木); they also contain one another: Wood contains Earth, Earth does Water, Water does Fire, Fire does Metal, Metal does Wood (木克土, 土克水, 水克火、火克金、金克木).
- 17.
Explanations of Chun-qiu Annals, Vol. 17《春秋繁露卷十七》 by DONG Zhong-shu: 天意趋仁, 其道趋义。作为国君, 给予、夺取、赦免、杀戮, 各有相应义理支撑, 如同四季; 确定官吏, 设置职位, 必须根据才能录用, 如同五行; 喜好仁爱, 厌恶乖戾, 任用德教, 远离刑罚, 如同阴阳。这叫与天意相配。天道令万物生长, 王道令百姓生活; 国君之伟大, 在于参照天道啊。好恶之分别, 通阴阳之理; 喜怒之发生, 合寒暑之气; 官职之事务, 依五行之则; 以此生长于天地之间, 激荡于四海之内, 交错于阴阳之气, 杂合于天地之道。所以人们说: 王道须参照天道, 如若参照天道, 则入化境矣, 哪能仅是天地精华之作用呢!治国是以正气与天地之变化相错杂, 乱国是以邪气与天地之变化相错杂, 相同则彼此补益, 不同则相互减损, 无可置疑啊。
- 18.
Ibid., Vol. 10《春秋繁露卷十》。
- 19.
Ibid.
- 20.
“Huan Gong 11th Year” in Biography of GONG-YANG《公羊传·恒公十一年》。
- 21.
Ibid.
- 22.
Ibid.
- 23.
Explanations of Chun-qiu Annals, Vol. 15《春秋繁露卷十五》 by DONG Zhong-shu.
- 24.
Ibid., Vol. 8《春秋繁露卷八》。
- 25.
Ibid.
- 26.
Explanations of Chun-qiu Annals, Vol. 1《春秋繁露卷一》 by DONG Zhong-shu: 礼依赖于情志。情志为质料, 器物为文饰, 质料与文饰两相齐备, 才得以成礼。
- 27.
Ibid., Vol. 6《春秋繁露卷六》: 作为国家朝臣, 应当效法地道, 强调信用, 向君主表露其真情, 君主识别并加以珍视, 因此王道威严而不失其位。
- 28.
Ibid., Vol. 10《春秋繁露卷十》。
- 29.
Ibid.
- 30.
Ibid., Vol. 3《春秋繁露卷三》。
- 31.
“DONG Zhong-shu” in Book of Han 《汉书·董仲舒传》 by BAN Gu.
- 32.
Ibid., Vol. 11《春秋繁露卷十一》。
- 33.
Explanations of Chun-qiu Annals, Vol. 9 《春秋繁露卷九》。
- 34.
“Generality” in XUN Zi 《荀子·大略》。
- 35.
Explanations of Chun-qiu Annals, Vol. 2《春秋繁露卷二》。
- 36.
“DONG Zhong-shu” in Book of Han 《汉书·董仲舒传》 by BAN Gu.
- 37.
“Heaven” in On Steelyard (Vol. 11) 《论衡·卷十一·谈天篇》 by WANG Chong: 释《周易》者说: 元气未分之时, 浑沌混为一体。儒教书言: 自然之浑沌模糊, 乃气未分之状态。及其分离, 清者为天, 浊者成地。按如此说法, 天地初始分离之时, 形体尚小, 相距甚近。因此天似以不周山为枕, 共工能毁之, 女娲能补之。含气万物, 无不增长。天地, 乃含气之自然界矣; 自产生以来, 时已久远, 而天地之距离, 已无法计算。GONG Gong (共工) and NV Wa (女娲) are two significant figures in traditional Chinese mythology. GONG, the God of Water, rammed and broke Mount Bu-zhou with his head in wrath after he failed in a fight with ZHU Rong (祝融), the God of Fire. NV Wa, the mother of mankind, mended Heaven with five-colored boulders when the broken Mount Bu-zhou caused a giant hole in Heaven, and then slayed an enormous evil turtle and used its four giant feet to prop up Heaven.
- 38.
“Nature” in On Steelyard (Vol. 18) 《论衡·卷十八·自然篇》 by WANG Chong: 天道本是无为, 故春天出现并非为了万物之产生, 而夏天出现非为了万物之成长, 秋天出现并非为了万物之成熟, 冬天出现并非为了万物之收藏。阳气自然产生, 万物自然产生成长; 阴气自然产生, 万物自然成熟收藏。
- 39.
Ibid.: 有人说: 凡运动移行之物, 皆以有为作根本。有欲望则行动, 有行动则有为。现在天之运动与人之行动相似, 怎能是无为?我说: 天之运动, 乃施放元气。天体运动时, 则气施出, 万物产生; 当人运动时, 则气施出, 子女产生。人施放元气, 并非欲生子女, 但元气施出则子女自己产生矣。天体运动并非欲创生万物, 但万物自己产生, 此即“自然”; 施放元气并非欲万物有为, 但万物自己有为, 此即“无为”。天何以自然无为呢?元气之故也。恬淡无欲, 无为无事, 老聃得此天性而长寿。老聃从上天禀受了元气; 若上天无此元气, 老聃怎会禀此天性呢?
- 40.
“Character” in On Steelyard (Vol. 2)《论衡·卷二·率性篇》 by WANG Chong: 人皆禀受仁义礼智信五常之气, 含于五脏, 贯注全身。所禀之气有厚有薄, 故德性有善有恶。凶残者所禀仁气少, 而易怒者所禀勇气多。胡作非为者, 其罪缘于本性为恶。所禀之气稀薄而少, 故其操行不及善人, 犹如酒味之浓淡也。其味浓味淡非因不同酿法, 而是酒曲之多少使然也。因此, 酒味浓淡, 源自同一酒曲; 人性善恶, 源自同一元气。禀气有多有少, 故人性有贤有愚。
- 41.
Ibid.: 人之德性, 善可变为恶, 恶可变为善。飞蓬生于麻间, 不扶自然会直; 白纱浸入黑墨, 颜色自然变黑。飞蓬生性不直, 白纱质地不黑, 但经大麻扶持, 黑色浸染, 它们变直变黑。人之德性犹如蓬纱, 逐渐浸染之下, 善恶将会改变。如此说来, 人亦需教化, 不独在本性。
- 42.
“Government” in On Steelyard (Vol. 17) 《论衡·卷十七·治期篇》 by WANG Chong: 社会之所以产生混乱, 不是由于盗贼众多, 战事频仍, 民弃礼义, 背叛君王吗?此类事情, 因粮食缺乏, 无法忍受饥寒。饥寒交迫之际而能不做坏事者少, 衣食充足之时而能不做好事者稀。管子说: 仓禀实而知礼节,衣食足而知荣辱。谦让生于富余, 争斗起于不足。谷物充足食物丰富, 礼义之心产生; 礼仪盛多义气深重, 安定之基确立。故饥荒之春, 不留亲戚吃饭; 丰年之秋, 邀集四邻盛宴。不留亲戚吃饭, 乃恶劣行为; 邀请四邻盛宴, 乃善良义举。善恶行为之原因, 不在于人之本性, 而在于岁之丰歉。由此说来, 礼义之推行, 在于谷物充足也。谷物之收成, 取决于年岁。涝年旱岁, 庄稼歉收, 非因政治所致, 而因时数使然也。
- 43.
“Endowment” in On Steelyard (Vol. 3) 《论衡·卷三·初禀篇》 by WANG Chong。
- 44.
“Fortune” in On Steelyard (Vol. 6) 《论衡·卷六·福虚篇》 by WANG Chong。
- 45.
“Destiny” in On Steelyard (Vol. 2) 《论衡·卷二·命义篇》 by WANG Chong。
- 46.
“Talents” in On Steelyard (Vol. 2) 《论衡·卷十二·程材篇》 by WANG Chong。
- 47.
“Autobiography” of On Steelyard (Vol. 30) 《论衡·卷三十·自纪篇》 by WANG Chong: 身虽显达但才智贫乏, 官位虽高但德行低下, 彼以为荣耀, 我以为无益。靠献媚讨好, 得高官安逸, 但百年之后, 与他物俱殁, 名声传不过一代, 文章留不下一札, 官俸虽然丰厚, 文才德能浅薄, 此非我所称赞。
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ZHU (朱贻庭), Yt. (2021). Ethical Thought in Han Dynasty. In: A Panoramic History of Traditional Chinese Ethics . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1252-7_3
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