Abstract
From once a net importer of food during 1960s, India has emerged not only as self-sufficient but has become a net exporter. And all this has happened as a result of series of innovations in production technologies ranging from seeds (high yielding, genetically modified and climate-resilient) that resulted in higher productivity, protection of crops from pests, increase in mineral, vitamin and protein content, to farming practices addressing how to apply water (irrigation), fertilisers, pesticides, machinery that saves on costs and promotes sustainable agriculture. Innovations in drip irrigation with fertigation, soil health cards, neem coating of urea and custom hiring (‘Uberisation’) of farm machinery have yielded encouraging results and need further scaling up. In fact, innovations make an impact beyond production technologies into the field of institutions that ensure effective implementation of policies, into trade, marketing and storage of agri-produce which bring higher value to the farmers. In this paper, we spell out major innovations in production technologies in Indian agriculture which have had a significant impact on overall productivity and production, and also touch on innovations that are currently unfolding in inputs and production processes such as innovations in precision agriculture using smart technologies—artificial intelligence, drones, Internet of things (IoT), remote sensing, etc., and innovations in protected agriculture (poly-houses), hydroponics, aeroponics and aquaponics. Therefore, this chapter aims to cover innovations spreading all along the agri-value chains, from farm to fork, or, more aptly in a demand-driven system, from “plate to plough”.
This chapter has been authored by Ashok Gulati and Ritika Juneja, both affiliated to the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations, New Delhi, India.
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Notes
- 1.
Soon after independence, in 1948, Jawaharlal Nehru remarked that “everything else can wait, but not agriculture”. He said this in the context of the Bengal Famine of 1942–43 and the acute food scarcity prevailing in the country in 1947 (Swaminathan 2007).
- 2.
In 1987, M. S. Swaminathan was honoured with the first World Food Prize for spearheading the introduction of high-yielding varieties to Indian farmers (The World Food Prize 1987).
- 3.
- 4.
Pusa Basmati 1121 was developed by ICAR in 2003 and was first released as Pusa 1121 in 2005 vide Gazette Notification S. O. 1566(E) dated 5 November 2005. Then in 2008, it was substituted by Pusa Basmati 1121 vide Gazette Notification no. S.O. 2547(E) dated 29 October 2008.
- 5.
Released commercially vide Gazette Notification no. S.O. 2817(E) dated 19 September 2013.
- 6.
Zero tillage can allow farmers to sow wheat sooner after rice harvest, so that the wheat crop escapes terminal heat stress (ICAR-IARI 2018).
- 7.
Report by Agriculture Technology Management Agency (ATMA), Nalanda with PRADAN—“Assessment, Refinement and Validation of technology through System of Wheat Intensification (SWI) in Nalanda”.
- 8.
DRR Dhan 45 is India’s first bio-fortified semi-dwarf zinc-rich and high-yielding variety, developed at ICAR-IIRR and released in India. It is developed from the cross IR 73707-45-3-2-3/ IR 77080-B-34-3; it is a medium duration culture (~130 days) with non-lodging plant type and long slender grain that is recommended for cultivation in an irrigated ecosystem yielding 5–6 t/ha with 22 ppm zinc.
- 9.
It is not genetically modified (non-GMO) and has been approved for human consumption by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) as F.No.04/Std/PA/FSSAI/2018 (inputs received from NABI).
- 10.
Anthocyanins are the naturally occurring antioxidants that give blueberries and jamun their colour and come under the list of healthy nutraceuticals under Schedule VI B of FSSAI’s Nutraceutical Regulations.
- 11.
Plant material included one white wheat (cv, PBW621), three coloured donor wheat lines (purple, blue and black) and three high-yielding coloured advanced breeding lines (purple, blue and black) selected from back-crossed filial generations (BC1F8) of cross between white and donor coloured wheat lines. They were grown and advanced in the farms of the National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute, Mohali, Punjab, India (30˚44’10” N latitude at an elevation of 351 m above sea level) in 2015–2016 (Sharma et al. 2018).
- 12.
Farm Grocer, Ambala; Borlaug Farm Association for South Asia, Ludhiana, Golden Agrigenetic India Ltd., Lucknow; Premier (India) Seed Company, Vidisha; Habitat Genome Improvement Primary Producer Company, Hisar; Bishwanath Agrawal (BNA), Purnea; Puddings and Pie, Mohali; Urban Platter, iStore Direct Trading LLP, Mumbai; Dayspring Foods, Porbandar; Antho Grains Pvt. Ltd., Mohali.
- 13.
The golden rice prototype was first developed in the 1990s by European scientists Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer independently. In early 2001, they sold the licence to the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines for further development. Later, the scientists sold commercial rights to the core technology to Syngenta. Scientists made further improvements to the golden rice variety, primarily with much higher levels of beta carotene, in 2005 (Dubock 2000).
- 14.
The Milk and Milk Product Order (MMPO) was first introduced in 1992 under Sect. 3 of the Essential Commodities Act, following the economic liberalisation policy of the government of India. It was last amended in 2002 when the concept of cowsheds was removed (Dairy India 2017). The MMPO helped improve the supply of quality milk and increase the share of organised players in the dairy sector (Gulat et al. 2008).
- 15.
Press Information Bureau, Government of India, issued by Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare dated 21 November 2017 (http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=173699), accessed on 25 March 2018.
- 16.
Calculated using data from Handbook on Fisheries Statistics, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries; Agricultural Statistics at Glance 2016 and Indiastat, accessed on 26 March 2018.
- 17.
Private hatcheries supply over 60% of the carp fingerlings for polyculture (Nair and Salin 2007).
- 18.
Ring seine units showed an increase of 152% in terms of fishing units and 163% in terms of fishing hours from 1988 to 1989.
- 19.
Inputs received from A. Gopalakrishnan, Director, CMFRI, on 25 March 2018.
- 20.
Catch per unit effort of a specific gear and craft.
- 21.
L. vannamei is backed under two relevant acts—Livestock Importation Act, 1898 (Amended 2001), which regulates import and quarantine and the Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act, 2005, which regulates breeding and farming.
- 22.
Technical efficiency measures the ability of a farmer to get maximum output from a given set of inputs.
- 23.
Article titled Poultry Industry In India under a Globalized Environment—Opportunities and Challenges in International Journal of Scientific Research (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280609553_Poultry_Industry_In_India_Under_Globalised_Environment_-_Opportunities_and_Challenges).
- 24.
- 25.
- 26.
https://books.google.co.in/books?id=YY0XLt6d0BgC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false, accessed on 25 March 2018.
- 27.
Budget (1995–96), Speech by Shri Manmohan Singh, Minister of Finance on 15 March 1995. https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/bspeech/bs199596.pdf, accessed on 15 April 2018.
- 28.
- 29.
Also known as the “Father of Modern Poultry in India”.
- 30.
Contact farming in poultry is broadly defined as an agreement between an integrator and farmers to produce/raise poultry birds at predetermined prices.
- 31.
Under the arrangement, the integrators (hatcheries) provide quality inputs, technical guidance, management skills, credit as well as knowledge of new improved technology, through intermittent supervision. Farmers, on behalf of the integrators, look after the chicks and rear them in their poultry sheds to slaughter weight while maintaining strict bio-security level. The farmers found the guaranteed returns of contract farming preferable to the vagaries of market returns as they got a fixed income, assured market, credit support, reduced risk and uncertainty. The live birds are then purchased either by the integrators for slaughter and further processing or by a wholesaler who distributes them via live markets (DoAHD&F 2017).
- 32.
Third advance estimates 2017–18.
- 33.
According to APEDA, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India.
- 34.
Covering innovations in mango and banana production among fruits and in onion and potato production among vegetables, because mango and banana account for a 53% share in the total fruit production and onion and potato account for a 40% share in the total vegetable production.
- 35.
Based on closer planting of mango grafts, dwarf rootstocks and canopy architect management are key disruptions that have led to optimised use of land, nutrients and other resources. Generally, the recommended space between trees is 10 m * 10 m, but in UHDP, experts recommend only 4.5 m * 4.5 m to control growth of trees within two metres and height within six feet (Innovative Farming Solutions 2014).
- 36.
Under this technology, seeds are produced by transplanting seedlings raised in nursery beds or by planting seedling tubers produced in the previous season. ICAR-CPRI supplies these seeds to various state government organisations for further multiplication in three more cycles, such as Foundation Seed 1 (FS-1), Foundation Seed 2 (FS-2) and Certified Seed (CS) under strict health standards (Mustaquim 2017).
- 37.
Under the technology, plants are grown in an air or mist environment without the use of soil or an aggregate media. This is an alternative method of soilless culture in nutrient solutions under controlled environments (Mustaquim 2017).
- 38.
Inputs from Dr. S. K. Chakrabarti, Director, ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla.
- 39.
This variety has replaced the Kufri Jyoti as the number 1 variety and covers nearly 33% of the area under potato today.
- 40.
Onion exports were canalised by the National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation (NAFED) until 1998 to protect domestic consumers and producers from unduly high prices and gluts. In January 1999, GoI introduced a new export–import policy and certain changes were made in the system of onion trade by including 13 state trading enterprises as canalising agencies for onion trade, namely the Maharashtra Agricultural Marketing Board, Gujarat Agro Industries Corporation, Karnataka State Co-operative Marketing Federation, Andhra Pradesh Marketing Federation, etc., so that no agency acquires a monopoly position.
- 41.
According to Punjabi and Mukherjee (2015), there are 100 onion dehydration units in India, of which 85 are located in Gujarat, and the remaining in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. In 2016–17, India produced 50,000 tonnes of dehydrated onions and contributed approximately 40% to the total global export of dehydrated onions, next only to the USA, which exported approximately 50%; the remainder is exported by Egypt and China. India exports to Europe, Russia, France, etc.
- 42.
Lint is cotton fibre that is removed from the seed during the cotton ginning process. From here on, cotton lint is referred to as cotton.
- 43.
Issued by Ministry of Textiles, Government of India, through the Press Information Bureau on 9 March 2017.
- 44.
Report on “Revolution in Indian Cotton” published by Directorate of Cotton Development, Department of Agriculture & Co-operation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, in 2009.
- 45.
Million bales of 170 kg each.
- 46.
About 40–50% of total crop pesticide used in the country was applied just on cotton (DoAC&FW 2016).
- 47.
Research study on “Deconstructing Indian cotton: weather, yields, and suicides” by Andrew Paul Gutierrez, Luigi Ponti, Hans R Herren, Johann Baumgärtner and Peter E Kenmore published in Springer Open Journal (https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s12302-015-0043-8.pdf).
- 48.
ICAC Report on “Emerging Pests of Bt Cotton and Dynamics of Insect Pests in Different Events of Bt Cotton” by Udiker S. S., Kranth K. R, Pati S. B. Khad B. M. (https://www.icac.org/tis/regional_networks/asian_network/meeting_5/documents/papers/PapUdikeriS.pdf).
- 49.
- 50.
The government has even stepped into private contracts and imposed price regulations as observed in March 2016, when the price of Bollgard II seed prices was controlled at Rs. 800 per 450-g pack (these had been previously selling at Rs. 830–1000 in different states) and the royalty fee or trait value paid by domestic seed firms to technology developer MMB was slashed by 70 from Rs. 183.26 earlier to Rs. 49 per packet by the government (Seetharaman 2018). Further, for the 2018 kharif season, GoI fixed the maximum sale price of Bt cotton seeds at Rs. 740 per packet of 450 g and reduced the royalty fee to Rs. 39 per packet (Press Trust of India 2018).
- 51.
- 52.
The Government of India implemented a centrally sponsored scheme on micro-irrigation in 2005 to improve water use efficiency in agriculture by promoting technologies like drip and sprinkler irrigation technologies. In June 2010, it was scaled up to the National Mission on Micro-Irrigation (NMMI), which continued till the year 2013–14. NMMI was integrated under National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) and implemented as “on-farm water management” (OFWM) during the financial year 2014–15. From 1 April 2015, the micro-irrigation component of OFWM has been included under the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana as the “per drop more crop” component.
- 53.
Total irrigated area: Irrigated agricultural area refers to area equipped to provide water (via artificial means of irrigation such as by diverting streams, flooding or spraying) to crops (source: FAO). For India, we have taken the net irrigated area as it was found to be the closest equivalent to FAO data.
- 54.
The task force on micro-irrigation (MI) set up under the Chairmanship of Shri Chandrababu Naidu (2004) estimated that the potential for micro-irrigation in India is around 69.5 Mha with DMI potential of 27 Mha and SMI potential of 42.5 Mha. Thus, the untapped potential of micro-irrigation is still quite large (around 59.3 Mha).
- 55.
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture—Operational Guidelines. Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Co-operation, Government of India.
- 56.
Micro-irrigation techniques like drip irrigation require lower water pressure (20–25 psi) at the outlet compared to overhead systems (50–80 psi). This reduces power requirement for pumping.
- 57.
Net metering has been a success in Australia, Canada, USA, Italy, Spain and Denmark among others. In 2002, Thailand was the first country to initiate the net-metering policy in the developing world. The very small power producer (VSPP) regulations were aimed at encouraging the use of small-scale renewable generation under 1 MW. The Thailand government mandates the purchase of any surplus electricity generated through renewables at rates that are adjusted every three months. The regulations now cover generation under 10 MW.
- 58.
Converted in USD at the current exchange rate of USD1 = Rs. 76.62.
- 59.
- 60.
Compared to neighbouring countries, Brazil, Indonesia, China and South Africa and some other rice-producing countries in Asia (rice crop requires urea in large proportion), farmers in India pay the lowest price for urea. In 2017, world urea price was at USD220/MT and Indian farmers paid USD86/MT (after including an extra 5% in price for neem coating) while in China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Philippines, urea was priced at USD253/MT, USD265/MT, USD195/MT, USD135/MT and USD362/MT, respectively. Such low prices in India have led to the misuse of urea, mainly in the form of smuggling to neighbouring countries.
- 61.
The subsidy on urea was calculated as the difference between retention price and the statutorily notified sale price for each urea unit individually. Under the maximum retail price (MRP) scheme of diammonium phosphate (DAP) and muriate of potash (MOP), the difference between the delivered price of fertilisers at the farm gate level and the MRP fixed by the government was paid out as subsidy. Under the nutrient-based subsidy (NBS) scheme, a fixed rate of subsidy on a Rs./kg basis is announced after taking into consideration factors like international prices, exchange rate, inventory level and the existing MRP of DAP and MOP. Subsidy being fixed, any fluctuation in international prices is reflected in the domestic price of DAP and MOP under the NBS policy. Fertiliser subsidy is mentioned in the union budget every year.
- 62.
The study intended to analyse the impact of NCU on yield and income and document the status and implementation of the soil health card scheme. The study collected primary and secondary data from six states, namely Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Assam. The reference period was the 2015 kharif season. The six crops considered for the study were paddy, red gram, sugar cane, maize, soya bean and jute.
- 63.
Nearly 52% of red gram (tur) farmers and 61% of paddy farmers have found improvement in soil texture, soil moisture retention, water infiltration and soil softness, and reduction in soil compaction.
- 64.
The beginning of soil-testing laboratories in India goes back to 1955–56, when 16 soil-testing laboratories (STLs) were established under the “Indo‐US Operational Agreement for Determination of Soil Fertility and Fertiliser Use”. After that, 1049 STLs were set up in the country by March 2012 (Press Release 07.09.2012). In 2013–14, 15 more STLs were sanctioned (Press Release 2 January 2017). It was recognised by the working group report that for judicious use of fertiliser by farmers, the role of STLs and fertiliser recommendation is undeniable. Farmers with small holdings require these recommendations even more. Under the National Project on Management of Soil Health and Fertility (NPMSH&F) of the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation (DAC), financial assistance was provided for farmer’s training and field demonstrations on balanced use of fertilisers.
- 65.
Converted to USD using exchange rate of USD1 = Rs. 65.46 in 2015 (RBI 2017–18).
- 66.
As on 1 January 2018.
- 67.
To examine the design of the SHC scheme; assess the modalities of delivery; assess the level of utilisation of SHCs by farmers; and assess the impact of the SHC scheme on the judicious use of fertilisers (bio and organic) as well as cropping choice, cost reduction, farm profitability and sustainability. The study also recommends some measures to improve the overall design of the scheme.
- 68.
Fertiliser use and productivity before and after, following the recommendations of SHC, were compared.
- 69.
- 70.
Power BI is a business analytics service by Microsoft. It aims to provide interactive visualisations and business intelligence capabilities with an interface for end users to create their own reports and dashboards.
- 71.
- 72.
- 73.
Italy, France, Iran: International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage 2016-17; *Total of the 46 countries considered by ICID in their annual report 2016–17; FAO Aquastat data, DES, GOI.; China: Correspondence with CNCID—Chinese National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage; USGS (United States Geological Survey): https://water.usgs.gov/watuse/wuir.html, http://databank.worldbank.org.
- 74.
- 75.
Young plants grown in small, individual cells, ready to be transplanted into containers or a field.
- 76.
Data on privately performed agricultural research in India are not available; so it is excluded from the analysis.
- 77.
Monsanto is now taken over by Bayer.
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Gulati, A., Juneja, R. (2021). Innovations in Production Technologies in India. In: From Food Scarcity to Surplus. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9484-7_3
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