Abstract
Like the other former Soviet countries profiled in this edited volume, Tajikistan experienced the challenges of state-building following an independence that was thrust upon the region’s leaders in 1991. Rather than transitioning towards democracy as Kyrgyzstan did, Tajikistan, like the other states in the region, with the exception of Kyrgyzstan, has become increasingly authoritarian, with informal, factional politics remaining central to the perseverance of authoritarian rule.
Edward Lemon is Research Assistant Professor at The Bush School of Government and Public Service, Texas A&M University, Washington D.C. teaching site. He has previously held positions at the Wilson Center and Columbia University. His research focuses on authoritarianism and security issues in Central Asia. He is the editor of Critical Approaches to Security in Central Asia (Routledge 2018). Flora Roberts is the Lecturer in Environmental History at Cardiff University. Her research focuses on Soviet Central Asia, but she has also directed research on contemporary security issues in Central Asian border regions funded by the OSCE and worked for international development agencies in Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan, managing microfinance and emergency response projects, among others. Her research has been published in Central Asian Survey and Ab Imperio.
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Notes
- 1.
The only study conducted to determine the number of deaths in the civil war in Tajikistan put the number at 23,500, with 20,000 of these deaths occurring in 1992. See: Mukomel’, Demograficheskie Posledstviia etnicheskikh i religional’nikh konfliktov v SNG, Naselenie & Obshchestvo, No. 27 (April 1997), Table 1; Mukomel’, Vooruzhennie mezhnatsional’nie i regional’nie konflikti: lyudskie poteri, ekonomicheskii ushcherb i sotsial’nye posledstviia, in Identichnost’ i konflikt v postsovetskikh gosudarstvakh.
- 2.
Tajikistan was also outraged by Iran’s decision to host Muhiddin Kabiri, exiled leader of the IRPT branded a terrorist by Rahmon’s government, for a conference on Islamic Unity in December 2015. See Catherine Putz, Tajikistan’s Islamic Disunity on Display at Islamic Unity Conference, The Diplomat, 31 December 2015. http://thediplomat.com/2015/12/tajikistans-islamic-disunity-on-display-at-islamic-unity-conference/.
- 3.
On “Afghanicization,” see Hill (2002).
- 4.
- 5.
For a discussion of these terms, see Gullette (2007).
- 6.
See also Schatz (2004).
- 7.
This tripartite distinction is outlined in Gandhi and Lust-Okar (2009).
- 8.
On waqf, see McChseney (2014).
- 9.
See, for instance Shishkin (2014), and the robust rebuttal to the old canard of Stalin’s malevolent role in the national delimitation process offered by Alexander Morrison in “Stalin’s Giant Pencil: Debunking a Myth About Central Asia’s Borders,” published by EurasiaNet on 13 February 2017. Accessed 10 May 2017 at http://www.eurasianet.org/node/82376.
- 10.
On the role of the Central Asian Bureau, see Keller (2003).
- 11.
Indeed, in 1923 the commission responsible for re-designing administrative subdivisions within Turkestan explicitly set aside national criteria “because the population is too mixed.” D.P. Krasnovskii, ed., Materialy po raionirovaniiu Turkestana, vyp.2, Proekt administrativno-khoziaistvennogo deleniia TSSR (Tashkent, 1924), quoted in Khalid (2015, 271).
- 12.
On the process of national delimitation, see Hirsch (2005).
- 13.
For an example of Tajik nationalist historiography advancing irredentist claims on Samarkand and Bukhara, see Rahim Masov, Istoriia topornogo razdeleniia (Dushanbe: Irfon, 1991).
- 14.
See, for instance, Ibrohim Rahmatovich Jabborov (2014), Vklad akademika S.A. Radzhabova v razvitie vysshego obrazovaniiai nauki Tajikistana (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), Tajik National University, Dushanbe: 34–36. The role of korenizatsia is tacitly or openly acknowledged in the accounts of career trajectories given in several memoirs including: Zarif Radzhabov (Rajabov) (1986), Stranitsy proshlogo: iz vospominanii veteran kul’turnogo stroitel’stvo v Tadzhikskoi SSR [Pages from the past: from the memoirs of a veteran of cultural construction in the Tajik SSR], Dushanbe, n.p.; Saidkarim Valizoda (1975), Yode az guzashta [Memories of the past], Dushanbe, Irfon.
- 15.
Approximately 70% of the party membership in Tajikistan—nearly 10,000 people at all levels of the organization—was expelled between 1933 and 1935. Accurate numbers for purge victims are notoriously hard to pin down, but it has been established that 7,883 Tajik citizens were subsequently rehabilitated, about half posthumously, see Nourzhanov and Bleuer (2013, 111–112). Prominent victims of the purges included several who had taken active part in the national delimitation process: Abdurahim Hojiboev (chairman of Tajik SovNarKom until 1933), Nusratullo Mahsum (chair of the Central Executive Committee of the Tajik SSR), Shirinsho Shotemur (acting first secretary of the Communist Party of the Tajik ASSR from 1929 to 1930) and Abdullo Rahimboev (chair of Tajik SovNarKom until 1937). The Russian non-governmental organisation Memorial has compiled a list of one hundred purge victims executed in the Tajik SSR in 1938 (not all of them ethnic Tajiks), which does not include Tajiks executed elsewhere in the USSR, available at https://www.memo.ru.
- 16.
This narrative has been challenged by Isaac Scarborough, who argues that the idea that “Tajik Soviet politics was dominated by a unified “Leninabad” clan, […] is not entirely supported by available evidence. Archival records show that ministerial and Party roles were filled by cadres from around Tajikistan, and political networks often had as much to do with shared work experience as with geographic belonging.” See Scarborough (2018, 55).
- 17.
- 18.
The current President, Emomali Rahmon, also began his career in cotton farming, although he is from the south of the country, not the north where Khujand/Leninobod is located.
- 19.
- 20.
Saidali Siddiq, Den’ presidenta (President’s Day), Khovar, 16 November 2016. http://khovar.tj/rus/2016/11/den-prezidenta/.
- 21.
Abdullojonov became the Minister of Grain Products in the Tajik SSR in 1987. An ally of Nabiev, he served as Prime Minister from September 21, 1992 to December 18, 1993. Members of Abdullojonov’s family dominated politics in the north of the country. His brother became mayor of Khujand in the early 1990s and his brother in law Abdujalil Homidov was governor of Leninobod viloyat (region) from 1990 to 1992.
- 22.
For a thorough analysis of these pacts with warlords, see Driscoll (2015).
- 23.
In a stroke of luck, Rahmon avoided having to deal with his most powerful patron Safarov who was killed by another commander Faizali Saidov on March 30, 1993.
- 24.
A career criminal, Salimov was jailed for being a leader of the riots that shook Dushanbe in February 1990. Salimov was allegedly henchman of Rauf Saliev, a boxer and prominent leader of Dushanbe’s underworld.
- 25.
A physical trainer at schools in Dushanbe, Qosymov joined the Popular Front as a commander in 1992.
- 26.
Quvvatov worked in the economic crime department at the Minister of Interior in Kulob and later Dushanbe.
- 27.
Before joining the Popular Front, Mirzoev worked as a teacher, in a factory and as a driver in an avtobaza in Kulob.
- 28.
For a more comprehensive history of the Russian–Tajik relations in the Yeltsin period, see Jonson (2006).
- 29.
By July 1999, 5,377 UTO fighters had been incorporated into Tajikistan’s army, police force and border guard units.
- 30.
Born in 1954 into a prominent religious family, Turajonzoda studied Islam in Bukhara and Jordan, becoming qazi kalon, or supreme religious leader in Tajikistan between 1988 and 1993. He joined the UTO and supported the opposition during the civil war. He held the position of first deputy prime minister until 2005 and remains a member of the Supreme Assembly, Tajikistan’s upper house.
- 31.
A 2002 open letter of the old Popular Front commanders to President Rahmon commanders, quoted in Nourzhanov (2005, 125).
- 32.
On the concept of ‘spoilers’ in peace negotiations, see Stedman (1997).
- 33.
Renamed TALCO in 2007, the aluminium smelter consumes 40% of the country’s electricity and accounts for one-third of exports.
- 34.
His exact fate is unknown, with some reporting that he died in 2001. See, for example, Engvall (2014, 234).
- 35.
For details on the operation, see ICG (December 24, 2001, 17).
- 36.
Kenjaev was one of the most powerful men in the country following independence. As Speaker of the Supreme Soviet between 1991 and 1992, he stoked tensions by publically accusing ethnic Pamiri Minister of Internal Affairs Mamadayaz Navjavanov of sympathizing with opposition protesters in March 1992.
- 37.
- 38.
“M.Akhmadov: My Dostanem ikh i v Pravitselstve” [M. Ahmadov: ‘We Will Get Them, Even in the Government’], Asia-Plus, 12 January 2011, http://news.tj/ru/newspaper/article/m-ahmadov-my-dostanem-ikh-i-v-pravitelstve.
- 39.
On August 5, Safina TV, a channel owned by Rahmon’s daughter, aired police footage of the interrogation of two of Azizov’s brothers, arrested on August 3. They both cited Mirzo Ziyoev as their group’s leader.
- 40.
Saodat Muhbatsho, Tajikistan: Mysterious Death Raises Concerns About Militant Returns, EurasiaNet, 13 July 2009, http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav071409.shtml.
- 41.
Analysts have noted numerous inconsistencies in the government’s account of events. Sodiqov notes that whereas the Tajik authorities reported that Ziyoev was killed on July 11, www.centrasia.ru broke the news of his death on July 10 (Sodiqov August 19, 2009).
- 42.
The government suffered another setback on October 6 when an Mi-8 helicopter carrying the GKNB’s elite Alpha division crash-landed, killing twenty-eight soldiers. Although the defence ministry claimed the helicopter “crashed due to technical reasons,” locals reported seeing RPG fire (ICG May 24, 2011).
- 43.
Officials originally said Bedaki was killed in a gun battle. A month later, footage emerged online showing Bedaki being interrogated. See Sodiqov and Foroughi (January 11, 2011).
- 44.
The Pamir, or Gorno-Badakhshan Avtomnii Oblast’ (GBAO), represents 45% of the territory of Tajikistan but only 3% of its population. It is home to 250,000 Ismaili Shiites who speak Pamiri languages of the Eastern Iranian language family.
- 45.
Nazarov was allegedly running his own smuggling operation, as well as asking for a cut of Ayombekov’s profits. See Tadjbakhsh (2012).
- 46.
This is based on a list of 31 ministers, heads of state committees, speakers of parliament and senior members of the prime minister’s team compiled by the authors. Seventeen of these officials are from districts within the Soviet region (viloyat) of Kulob, which was merged with Qurgonteppa viloyat in November 1992 to form Khatlon.
- 47.
These are Minister of Agriculture, Amonullo Salimzoda, Deputy Prime Minister, Davlatshokh Gulmakhmadzoda, Minister for Industry Zarobiddin Fayzullozoda, Minister of Health Jamoliddin Abdullozoda. Other key individuals include Head of the State Customs Committee Abdufattoh Ghoib and Head of the Border Forces, Rahmonali Rajbali. Danghara accounts for just 1% of the Tajik population.
- 48.
Observatory of Economic Complexity, Tajikistan Country Profile, http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/tjk/.
- 49.
Tajikistan: Government Critic Facing Prison, Human Rights Watch, 4 August 2016, https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/08/04/tajikistan-government-critic-facing-prison.
- 50.
For a thorough analysis of these offshore linkages, see Cooley and Heathershaw (2017).
- 51.
Bruce Pannier, Why Does Tajikistan Need a Referendum? RFE/RL, 20 May 2016, https://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-tajikistan-referendum-rahmon/27747496.html.
- 52.
Tamiris Esfiandar, Tajikistan: President’s Family Expands Grip with Key Positions, EurasiaNet, 27 May 2014, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68408.
- 53.
SMI: Mladshaya Doch’ Rahmona Vishla Zamuzh za Dal’nego Rodstvennika [Media: Youngest Daughter of Rahmon Married a Distant Relative], Rosbalt, 10 June 2013, http://www.rosbalt.ru/world/2013/06/10/1139413.html.
- 54.
Central Asia’s 10 Most Influential (And Connected) Women, RFE/RL, 2 August 2011, https://www.rferl.org/a/central_asia_most_influential_connected_women/24284829.html.
- 55.
Tamiris Esfiandar, Tajikistan: President’s Family Expands Grip with Key Positions, Eurasia.Net, 27 May 2014, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68408.
- 56.
Tajik President Appoints Daughter Chief of Staff, Seen as Move to Consolidate Power, RFE/RL, 27 January 2016, http://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan-rahmon-daughter-chief-of-staff-consolidate-power/27514819.html.
- 57.
Tajik President Appoints New Chairman of National Bank, Trend.az, 4 May 2015, http://en.trend.az/casia/tajikistan/2391106.html.
- 58.
Tajikistan: Money by Marriage, OCCRP, 5 June 2018, https://www.occrp.org/en/moneybymarriage/.
- 59.
Sofia Wickberg, Overview of Corruption and Anti-Corruption in Tajikistan, Transparency International, 2013. https://www.transparency.org/whatwedo/answer/overview_of_corruption_in_tajikistan.
- 60.
Tajik Official Accuses Innovative Road Solutions Ltd of Violating Country’s Laws, Asia Plus, 4 May 2010, https://news.tj/en/news/tajik-official-accuses-innovative-road-solutions-ltd-violating-country-s-laws.
- 61.
Platnye Dorogi v Tajikistane Sdelali Gosurdarstennoi Tainoi [Toll Roads in Tajikistan Made a State Secret], Deutsche Welle, 5 July 2010, http://bit.ly/2qBERku
- 62.
Tajik President’s Son-In-Law Denies Ties to Company, RFE/RL, 12 July 2010, https://www.rferl.org/a/Tajik_Presidents_SonInLaw_Denies_Ties_To_Company/2097815.html.
- 63.
Author Interview with Tajik expert, November 2016.
- 64.
Tajik President Sacks Official Who Criticized Toll Road, RFE/RL, 24 January 2011, https://www.rferl.org/a/tajik_ashur_sacking_toll_road/2285206.html.
- 65.
Reuters, Norsk Hydro denies wrongdoing in Tajikistan, 7 March 2016, http://af.reuters.com/article/metalsNews/idAFL5N16F0OS.
- 66.
Tajikistan Case Set to Test Record Fees, Financial Times, 1 May 2008, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/24f3b976-1717-11dd-bbfc-0000779fd2ac.html?ft_site=falcon&desktop=true#axzz4ghstbgKK.
- 67.
David Trilling, Russian Aluminum Giant Pries Open Books at Tajikistan’s Largest Factory, EurasiaNet, 9 June 2014, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68466.
- 68.
John Heathershaw, Is There A Rahmon Family Feud Over Tajikistan’s Aluminium Company and its Offshore Schemes? EXCAS, 31 October 2016, https://blogs.exeter.ac.uk/excas/2016/10/31/talco-rahmon/.
- 69.
According to the latest figures from the Federal Migration Service from July 2016, there are 870,000 Tajik citizens residing in Russia. See Tajik Official Says Migration to Russia Down, RFE/RL, 22 July 2016, https://www.rferl.org/a/tajik-official-says-migration-to-russia-down/27873757.html.
- 70.
David Trilling, Tajikistan: Migrant Remittances Now Exceed Half of GDP, EurasiaNet, 15 August 2014, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68272.
- 71.
Tajikistan: Annual Remittance Data Confirm Worst Fears, EurasiaNet, 24 March 2016, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/77921.
- 72.
Farangis Najibullah, Tajik Workers Face Dire Future as Russia Closes Borders over Coronavirus, RFE/RL, 18 March 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/tajik-workers-face-dire-future-as-russia-closes-borders-over-coronavirus/30495815.html.
- 73.
Joshua Kucera, China Holds Anti-Terror Exercises on Afghanistan-Tajikistan Border, EurasiaNet, 24 October 2016, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/80986.
- 74.
This is based on figures given by the World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/DT.ODA.ODAT.CD.
- 75.
U.S. and Tajik Security Forces Conduct Crisis Response Exercise, US Embassy in Dushanbe, 20 March 2017, https://tj.usembassy.gov/u-s-tajik-security-forces-conduct-crisis-response-exercise/.
- 76.
Joshua Kucera, Pentagon Proposes $50 Million Program to Help Tajikistan Fight Terrorists, EurasiaNet, 16 February 2016, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/77366.
- 77.
Tajikistan: Abuse of Dissidents’ Families, Human Rights Watch, 20 December 2016, https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/12/20/tajikistan-abuse-dissidents-families.
- 78.
See, for instance, Komu zhe meshaet “Bessmertnyi polk”? Mnenia Zhitelei Dushanbe, Fergana News, 5 May 2017, http://www.fergananews.com/articles/9400.
- 79.
Tajikistan: Abuse of Dissidents’ Families, Human Rights Watch, 20 December 2016, https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/12/20/tajikistan-abuse-dissidents-families.
- 80.
Protokol 32-20 [Protocol 32-20], TajInfo, March 2012, https://tajinfo.org/pivt/page/635787048302941224.
- 81.
Kamol, V. HNIT. Oyo Metavon Onro Chun <Hizbi Jabridida> Paziruft? IRPT: Are they the “Party of the Victims”?], Jumhuriyat, 3 July 2015, http://www.jumhuriyat.tj/index.php?art_id=19813.
- 82.
A. Murodov HNIT az Bayoniya to Bayoniya [IRPT from Statement to Statement], Faraj, 2 August 2014, http://faraj.tj/security/5928-1202nit-az-baeniya-to-baeniya.html.
- 83.
End of a Peace Process? Pressure on Islamist Party Undermines Tajik Post-civil War Consensus, Afghanistan Analysts Network, 9 September 2013, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/end-of-a-peace-process-pressure-on-islamist-party-undermines-tajik-post-civil-war-consensus/.
- 84.
Jailed Tajik Human Rights Lawyer’s Sentence Extended to 25 Years, RFE/RL, 17 March 2017, http://gandhara.rferl.org/a/jailed-tajik-human-rights-lawyer-sentence-extended/28374887.html.
- 85.
Although Tajikistan’s Parliamentary Elections Provided Some Political Alternatives, Campaign Space Was Restricted and a Fair Count Could Not Be Guaranteed, International Observers Say, OSCE, 2 March 2015, http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/tajikistan/143311.
- 86.
Natijahon Intihobot Muholifinro Dar Kholi Shok Andokht [Election Results Push the Opposition Out], Radio Ozodi, 2 March 2015, http://www.ozodi.org/content/reaction-for-parliament-election-in-tajikistan/26876990.html.
- 87.
Mehrangez Tursunzoda, “The Authorities Have Closed the Publishing House of the IRPT” for “Failure to Provide Medical Treatment,” Asia Plus, 14 August 2015, http://news.tj/en/news/authorities-have-closed-publishing-house-irpt-failure-provide-medical-treatme.
- 88.
Asia-Plus, Tajik Prosecutor General’s Office Has Sealed the IRP Office in Dushanbe, 25 August 2015, http://news.tj/en/news/tajik-prosecutor-generals-office-has-sealed-irp-office-dushanbe.
- 89.
Tajikistan Bans Islamic Opposition Party, EurasiaNet, 28 August 2015, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/74856.
- 90.
Thomas Grove, Tajikistan Kills Ousted Deputy Defense Minister in Shootout, Wall Street Journal, September 16, 2015, accessed 17 May 2017 at https://www.wsj.com/articles/tajikistan-kills-ousted-deputy-defense-minister-in-shootout-1442423682.
- 91.
RFE/RL, Tajik Police Say 17 Killed in ‘Terrorist’ Attacks, 4 September 2015, https://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan-attacks-airport-deaths/27226045.html.
- 92.
Suhanronii Emomali Rahmon, Presidenti Jumhurii Tojikiston, ba Munosibati 18-Solagii Ruzi Vahdati Milli [Speech of Emomali Rahmon, President of the Republic of Tajikistan, on the 18th Anniversary of National Reconciliation], Jumhuriyat, 26 June 2015, http://jumhuriyat.tj/index.php?art_id=19789.
- 93.
U.S. Department of State, Tajikistan 2015 International Report on Religious Freedom, https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/256531.pdf.
- 94.
V Tajikistane Poyavilsya Novy Prazdnichny Den’ [In Tajikistan A New Holiday Has Appeared], Sputnik, 22 June 2016, http://ru.sputnik-tj.com/country/20160622/1019957671.html.
- 95.
Tajikistan Celebrated a New Holiday This Year—President’s Day, EurasiaNet, 21 November 2016, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/81376.
- 96.
For an analysis of the valorisation of Popular Front commanders during and after the war, and their marginalization, see Nourzhanov (2017).
- 97.
Officials frequently blame Islamic extremists for the violence that broke out in 1992. For Saidmurod Fattohzoda, first deputy chairman of the ruling People’s Democratic Party, for example, the civil war was “a war between two ideologies (jangi du ideologia): Communism and Islam.” See Mo Muqobili Islomi Radikali va Ateizm Jangovar Hastem [We Are Against Radical Islam and Militant Atheism], Harakat.tj, 10 November 2015, http://harakat.tj/52-mo-muobili-islomiradikal-va-ateizmi-angovar-astem.html.
- 98.
Suhanronii Emomali Rahmon, Prezidenti Jumhurii Tojikiston, Bakhshida ba Ruzi Donish va 70-solagii Ta’sisi Donishgohi Davlati Kulob ba Nomi Abduabdullohi Rudaki [Speech of Emomali Rahmon, President of the Republic of Tajikistan, Dedicated to Knowledge Day and the 70th Anniversary of Kulob State University Named After Abduabdullohi Rudaki], Jumhuriyat, 1 September 2015, http://jumhuriyat.tj/index.php?art_id=20642.
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Lemon, E., Roberts, F. (2021). Tajikistan: From Reconciliation to Post-Reconciliation. In: Izquierdo-Brichs, F., Serra-Massansalvador, F. (eds) Political Regimes and Neopatrimonialism in Central Asia. The Steppe and Beyond: Studies on Central Asia. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9093-1_6
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