Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Introduction

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Chemically Modified Minds

  • 263 Accesses

Abstract

Throughout history, humans have pursued chemicals that are able to alter physiological and psychological processes. Plants, semisynthetic and synthetic substances have been used for many reasons, including sharing mystical experiences, spiritual reasons, hedonism and pain relief. In some ways, substance use is crucial to a functioning society with licit drug use (of, e.g., caffeine and alcohol) and medicine use seen as the norm. However, over the last decade, there have been increasing reports of the use of substances for cognitive enhancement (CE). Such substances are believed to improve brain function in some way and thus offer the user a cognitive advantage. These can be broadly split into three categories—plant-based enhancers or nutraceuticals such as Ginkgo Biloba, soft enhancers such as caffeine and pharmacological cognitive enhancers (PCEs) such as modafinil and methylphenidate (MPH). This chapter explores the different substances which are most regularly reported to enhance cognition and investigates their pharmacology, mechanism of action and prevalence. In this chapter, the term ‘cognitive enhancement’ refers to the user’s intention to enhance performance more so than the effectiveness of the substance (Maier, Haug, & Schaub, Addiction, 111(2), 280–295, 2016; Maier & Schaub, 2015).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Advokat, C. D., & Scheithauer, M. (2013). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) stimulant medications as cognitive enhancers. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 7, 82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, T., Raza, S. H., Maryam, A., Setzer, W. N., Braidy, N., Nabavi, S. F., … Nabavi, S. M. (2016). Ginsenoside Rb1 as a neuroprotective agent: A review. Brain Research Bulletin, 125, 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.04.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bagot, K. S., & Kaminer, Y. (2014). Efficacy of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in non-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder youth: A systematic review. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 109(4), 547–557.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Battleday, R., & Brem, A. (2016). Modafinil for cognitive neuroenhancement in healthy non-sleep-deprived subjects: A systematic review. European Neuropsychopharmacology: The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 26(2), 391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, S. P., Froehlich, T. E., & Epstein, J. N. (2016). Effects of methylphenidate on sleep functioning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics: JDBP, 37(5), 395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coghill, D. R., Seth, S., Pedroso, S., Usala, T., Currie, J., & Gagliano, A. (2014). Effects of methylphenidate on cognitive functions in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Evidence from a systematic review and a meta-analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 76(8), 603–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.10.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • d’Angelo, L. C., Savulich, G., & Sahakian, B. J. (2017). Lifestyle use of drugs by healthy people for enhancing cognition, creativity, motivation and pleasure. British Journal of Pharmacology, 174(19), 3257–3267. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.13813

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darracq, L., Blanc, G., Glowinski, J., & Tassin, J.-P. (1998). Importance of the noradrenaline–dopamine coupling in the locomotor activating effects of D-amphetamine. Journal of Neuroscience, 18(7), 2729–2739.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dietz, P., Striegel, H., Franke, A. G., Lieb, K., Simon, P., & Ulrich, R. (2013). Randomized response estimates for the 12-month prevalence of cognitive-enhancing drug use in university students. Pharmacotherapy, 33(1), 44–50. https://doi.org/10.1002/phar.1166

  • Elsey, J. W. B. (2017). Psychedelic drug use in healthy individuals: A review of benefits, costs, and implications for drug policy. Drug Science, Policy and Law, 3, 2050324517723232. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050324517723232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emanuel, R. M., Frellsen, S. L., Kashima, K. J., Sanguino, S. M., Sierles, F. S., & Lazarus, C. J. (2013). Cognitive enhancement drug use among future physicians: Findings from a multi-institutional census of medical students. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 28(8), 1028–1034.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farah, M. J., Haimm, C., Sankoorikal, G., Smith, M. E., & Chatterjee, A. (2009). When we enhance cognition with Adderall, do we sacrifice creativity? A preliminary study. Psychopharmacology, 202(1–3), 541–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-008-1369-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franke, A. G., Gränsmark, P., Agricola, A., Schühle, K., Rommel, T., Sebastian, A., … Lieb, K. (2017). Methylphenidate, modafinil, and caffeine for cognitive enhancement in chess: A double-blind, randomised controlled trial. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 27(3), 248–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franke, A. G., Roser, P., Lieb, K., Vollmann, J., & Schildmann, J. (2016). Cannabis for cognitive enhancement as a new coping strategy? Results from a survey of students at four universities in Germany. Substance Use & Misuse, 51(14), 1856–1862. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2016.1200619

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredholm, B. B., Yang, J., & Wang, Y. (2017). Low, but not high, dose caffeine is a readily available probe for adenosine actions. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 55, 20–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2016.11.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holloway, K., & Bennett, T. (2012). Prescription drug misuse among university staff and students: A survey of motives, nature and extent. Drugs-Education Prevention and Policy, 19(2), 137–144. https://doi.org/10.3109/09687637.2011.594114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ilieva, I., Boland, J., & Farah, M. J. (2013). Objective and subjective cognitive enhancing effects of mixed amphetamine salts in healthy people. Neuropharmacology, 64, 496–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.07.021

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeffers, A. J., & Benotsch, E. G. (2016). Non-medical use of ADHD stimulants for appetite suppression and weight loss. In Chemically Modified Bodies (pp. 149–172). Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linssen, A. M. W., Sambeth, A., Vuurman, E. F. P. M., & Riedel, W. J. (2014). Cognitive effects of methylphenidate in healthy volunteers: A review of single dose studies. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 17(6), 961–977. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1461145713001594

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier, L. J., Ferris, J. A., & Winstock, A. R. (2018). Pharmacological cognitive enhancement among non-ADHD individuals—A cross-sectional study in 15 countries. International Journal of Drug Policy, 58, 104–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier, L. J., Haug, S., & Schaub, M. P. (2016). Prevalence of and motives for pharmacological neuroenhancement in Switzerland—Results from a national internet panel. Addiction, 111(2), 280–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier, L. J., & Schaub, M. P. (2015). The use of prescription drugs and drugs of abuse for neuroenhancement in Europe. European Psychologist, 20, 155–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maier, L. J., Liakoni, E., Schildmann, J., Schaub, M. P., & Liechti, M. E. (2015). Swiss university students’ attitudes toward pharmacological cognitive enhancement. PLoS ONE, 10(12), e0144402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier, L. J., Liechti, M. E., Herzig, F., & Schaub, M. P. (2013). To dope or not to dope: Neuroenhancement with prescription drugs and drugs of abuse among Swiss university students. PLoS ONE, 8(11), e77967.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazanov, J., Dunn, M., Connor, J., & Fielding, M. L. (2013). Substance use to enhance academic performance among Australian university students. Performance Enhancement & Health, 2(3), 110–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, S. E., Knight, J. R., Teter, C. J., & Wechsler, H. (2005). Non‐medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: Prevalence and correlates from a national survey. Addiction, 100(1), 96–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moeller, S. J., Honorio, J., Tomasi, D., Parvaz, M. A., Woicik, P. A., Volkow, N. D., & Goldstein, R. Z. (2014). Methylphenidate enhances executive function and optimizes prefrontal function in both health and cocaine addiction. Cerebral Cortex (New York, NY), 24(3), 643–653. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhs345

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parkes, J. D., & Fenton, G. W. (1973). Levo (−) amphetamine and dextro (+) amphetamine in the treatment of narcolepsy. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 36(6), 1076–1081.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Aronoff, H. R., Midlam, J. K., Shapiro, C. J., Gnagy, E. M., Chronis, A. M., … Waxmonsky, J. (1999). A comparison of ritalin and adderall: Efficacy and time-course in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 103(4), e43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rai, D., Bhatia, G., Sen, T., & Palit, G. J. J. (2003). Anti-stress effects of Ginkgo biloba and Panax ginseng: A comparative study. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences, 93(4), 458–464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ram, S., Hussainy, S., Henning, M., Jensen, M., & Russell, B. (2016). Prevalence of cognitive enhancer use among New Zealand tertiary students. Drug and Alcohol Review, 35(3), 345–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, P., Jr., & Hellriegel, E. T. (2003). Clinical pharmacokinetic profile of modafinil. Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 42(2), 123–137. https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200342020-00002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, W., & Weil, A. (2004). From chocolate to morphine: Everything you need to know about mind-altering drugs. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rush, C. R., Kelly, T. H., Hays, L. R., Baker, R. W., & Wooten, A. F. (2002). Acute behavioral and physiological effects of modafinil in drug abusers. Behavioural Pharmacology, 13(2), 105–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sahakian, B. J., Bruhl, A. B., Cook, J., Killikelly, C., Savulich, G., Piercy, T., … Jones, P. B. (2015). The impact of neuroscience on society: Cognitive enhancement in neuropsychiatric disorders and in healthy people. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 370(1677), 20140214. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sahakian, B. J., & Morein-Zamir, S. (2011). Neuroethical issues in cognitive enhancement. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(2), 197–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schelle, K. J., Olthof, B. M., Reintjes, W., Bundt, C., Gusman-Vermeer, J., & van Mil, A. C. (2015). A survey of substance use for cognitive enhancement by university students in the Netherlands. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 9, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2015.00010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, I., Bard, I., & Jackson, J. (2014). Robust resilience and substantial interest: A survey of pharmacological cognitive enhancement among university students in the UK and Ireland. PLoS ONE, 9(10), e105969. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105969

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoops, W. W., Lile, J. A., Fillmore, M. T., Glaser, P. E., & Rush, C. R. (2005). Reinforcing effects of modafinil: Influence of dose and behavioral demands following drug administration. Psychopharmacology, 182(1), 186–193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-005-0044-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Storebø, O. J., Krogh, H. B., Ramstad, E., Moreira-Maia, C. R., Holmskov, M., Skoog, M., … Gluud, C. (2015). Methylphenidate for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: Cochrane systematic review with meta-analyses and trial sequential analyses of randomised clinical trials. BMJ, 351. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h5203

  • Tsai, H. H., Lin, H. W., Simon Pickard, A., Tsai, H. Y., & Mahady, G. J. I. (2012). Evaluation of documented drug interactions and contraindications associated with herbs and dietary supplements: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Clinical Practice, 66(11), 1056–1078.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, D. C., Robbins, T. W., Clark, L., Aron, A. R., Dowson, J., & Sahakian, B. J. (2003). Cognitive enhancing effects of modafinil in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology, 165(3), 260–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vargo, E. J., & Petróczi, A. (2016). “It Was Me on a Good Day”: Exploring the Smart Drug Use Phenomenon in England. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 779. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00779

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vrecko, S. (2013). Just how cognitive is “cognitive enhancement”? On the significance of emotions in university students’ experiences with study drugs. AJOB Neuroscience, 4(1), 4–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/21507740.2012.740141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, W. E., Chilibeck, P. D., Comelli, E. M., Duncan, A. M., Phillips, S. M., Robinson, L. E., & Stellingwerff, T. (2019). Research in nutritional supplements and nutraceuticals for health, physical activity, and performance: Moving forward. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 44(5), 455–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, B. P., Becker-Blease, K. A., & Grace-Bishop, K. (2006). Stimulant medication use, misuse, and abuse in an undergraduate and graduate student sample. Journal of American College Health, 54(5), 261–268. https://doi.org/10.3200/JACH.54.5.261-268

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolff, W., Brand, R., Baumgarten, F., Lösel, J., & Ziegler, M. (2017). Modeling students’ instrumental (mis-) use of substances to enhance cognitive performance. BioPsychoSocial Medicine, 8, 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, C., Jiang, H., Liu, F., & He, Y. (2017). Application of near-infrared hyperspectral imaging with variable selection methods to determine and visualize caffeine content of coffee beans. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 10(1), 213–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK

    Jamie L. Tully, Mark Forshaw & Catharine Montgomery

  2. Arden University, Coventry, UK

    Matthew Hall

  3. University of Derby, Derby, UK

    Matthew Hall

Authors
  1. Jamie L. Tully
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mark Forshaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Matthew Hall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Catharine Montgomery
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Matthew Hall .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Arden University, Coventry, UK

    Matthew Hall

  2. Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK

    Mark Forshaw

  3. Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK

    Catharine Montgomery

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Tully, J.L., Forshaw, M., Hall, M., Montgomery, C. (2021). Introduction. In: Hall, M., Forshaw, M., Montgomery, C. (eds) Chemically Modified Minds. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6771-1_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6771-1_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-15-6770-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-15-6771-1

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation