①Professor Zhaoyuan Tian holds a Ph.D. in History. He is Professor in Folklore Studies, doctoral supervisor, and Associate Dean of the School of Social Development in East China Normal University. He also serves as Director of Regional Cultural Resources and Applied Research Center of East China Normal University, which is affiliated with National Folk Literature and Art Development Center of the Ministry of Culture. Professor Tian is mainly engaged in mythology studies with a focus on folk beliefs, folklore and the culture industry. He is currently an executive member of the Chinese Folklore Society and a member of the Shanghai Intangible Cultural Heritage Protection Expert Committee.

Each of ethnic groups has its own original mythology. Mythology is the source and foundation of a culture, and it records the history of a nation. Mythology is also the history of thoughts. Although mythology does not include the history of early civilization in its entirety, it can draw a rough historical outline. Nature mythology of China can be regarded as father of humanity in the country, as it gave rise to many philosophical thoughts. Today, our topic is creation mythology, which has also received a lot of attention from the cultural management authority of Shanghai Municipal Government. Prior to this, several university professors and scholars with doctoral degrees jointly wrote a book titled Creation Myths of China for Juvenile and Children’s Publishing House. People thought that having several professors write this book for children was like using a sledgehammer to crack a nut. But, it was a well-written book, and this practice was a worthy endeavor. Later, authorities convened artists to create images about China’s ancient creation mythology. Several professors at Fudan University wrote popular articles under this topic. And here, we have several scholars specializing in mythology studies to discuss relevant topics. In these public lectures, we strive to provide different perspectives.

If a nation does not have confidence in its own culture, its development will be restricted; so we should build such confidence. In the past, when the Chinese talked about mythology, Greece had always been put in the forefront whereas China had been considered as a follower. While it is true that Greek culture is most known for its mythology, which is the origin of Western culture, why do people think that our Chinese mythology is eclipsed in comparison? That is an expansive question. The Iliad and The Odyssey that people have held in esteem were actually not this long when first written; they have been slowly developed and expanded to what we know at present. The collection of Greek myths which was compiled by the German writer Schwab over a hundred years ago, is also a processed product. It seems that Chinese mythology is actually richer and deeper than Greek’s, especially if we include the mythology after the Qin and Han dynasties. More importantly, Chinese mythology is still breathing and developing, which is the most fascinating thing about it. We must take on the project of exploring the origin of Chinese mythology as an approach to revitalize Chinese culture and enhance national confidence. To build confidence in Chinese culture, we must first have confidence in Chinese mythology.

This time, we have three mythology scholars to conduct lectures. There will be six sessions in total.

Heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon are part of the Nature mythology of the Chinese. In China, if one is criticized as not knowing heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon, it means that one does not know the relevant social rules, etiquettes, or the very basics of being a person in society. That is a folk expression. On the other hand, if one keeps talking as if they understand everything, people will ridicule him as the “heaven-understanding god 懂天神”. In other words, one cannot know everything about heaven, earth, the sun or the moon; and we are always exploring. How can anyone understand heaven? A person who keeps babbling about heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon is generally considered to be mentally problematic. Now I am in a difficult situation as I think of it. If I say I don’t understand the sun or the moon, why should I come here? But if I say that I understand them very well, then it makes me look too self-righteous and arrogant. Does that not make me a “heaven-understanding god”? Today, I am here to exchange opinions with you all and I am doing so with awe. I will try to present my understanding of this esteemed part of Chinese culture and get some feedback, as there may be many learned people in the audience. After all, we are in Shanghai, a place with many talented people.

I am a folklore researcher. Folklore study focuses on the issues of national identity and country identity. It contributes to the development of local economy, and the protection of cultural heritage. Mythology is a form of folklore and a resource for constructing folk identity.

The ancient Chinese rarely used the concept of mythology 神话 shenhua. The word is said to have appeared during the Ming dynasty. About a hundred years ago, when the Japanese used Chinese characters to interpret Western mythology, they used the same term shenhua. We liked it, so we adopted this word. That was around the beginning of the 20th century. According to the existing records, Liang Qichao was the first person to use shenhua as it is used in modern mythology studies. In 1913, Jiang Guanyun published an article “Characters Created through Mythological History 神话历史养成之人物 Shenhua lishi yangcheng zhi renwu.”  We see that shenhua was used in the title. With the publication of this article, the modern concept of mythology spread in China. Some people might ask, since we pay so much attention to mythology and legends, why don’t we have the same regard for real history? This is an interesting question. We are not ignoring real history. On the contrary, we attach great importance to mythology and history, as both are important cultural resources. Mythical imaginations in history and genuine history are of equal value. The spirituality and idealism expressed in mythology are abstracted from reality, and they inspire the reality moving forward.

Mythology is an important part of international communication. The capability of working had been considered as a way to distinguish human beings from animals. But later we found that animals could work as well at some level. Then we thought only human beings were able to use tools, but we gradually found that animals were also capable of using tools. Those were from the perspective of acquiring materials. If labor is an act of material acquisition, then mythology is spiritual. After evolutionary breakthroughs, human beings were able to have imagination based on the existing world; this is a huge leap in thinking. Mythology, rich in imagination, is an extraordinary derivative of thoughts.

Mythology is the eternal home to the ideal and spirit of mankind, and it has always accompanied human beings. In the past, it was believed that mythology was the result of the undeveloped science in the prehistoric era; with more understanding of science, mythology would disappear. Many people thought that after we invented telegraphs, airplanes, radars, and the Internet, we had our own Thousand-Mile Eyes 千里眼 (a god who can see things thousands of miles away) and Wind-Accompanying Ears 顺风耳 (a god who can hear any sound carried on the wind), so people would stop believing in mythology. While it is true that science is constantly improving, mythology does not entirely arise from the absence of science, and science cannot answer all the questions about mythology. There is a modern myth in Shanghai about the Dragon Pillar supporting the viaduct on Yan’an Road. Starting from the late 20th century, people kept talking about it till the 21st century. The myth was that a monk master helped the construction team overcome the piling issue when laying the foundation. Nowadays, it is still common that some engineering and construction teams invite monks to practice religious rituals when the construction is not going smoothly. Indeed, in large real estate projects with billions of yuan at stake, religious rituals help construction workers feel reassured. That is understandable. The pile on Yan’an Road could have hit a rock, so it could not go deeper. Many solutions were proposed. This incident was rendered into numerous stories. Some people say that one day the Master Monk from Jade Buddha Temple (some say Longhua Temple) passed by and chanted a spell after learning what happened. He passed away soon after. Some people say that it was because he gave away the heavenly secret. Viewed today, this story is pure fabrication, but why do people love telling it? Because we believe in the power of the mysterious; it triggers imagination.

What would mankind be like were there no more mythology in the world? The answer is that human beings would not be able to move forward. Mythology is idealized and can guide human beings going forward. It is the carrier and the starting point of the Chinese dream. Some time ago, a TV drama series about Premier Zhou was aired. In this series, Henry Kissinger wanted to exchange samples collected from the moon for some soil and liquid from the Mawangdui tomb with China. Kissinger was impressed by the body-preserving technique two thousand years ago in the Mawangdui era in China, so he wanted to have some samples. Premier Zhou rejected this request, saying that a girl called Chang’e had been to the moon two thousand years ago. As we all know, our spacecraft Chang’e 1 had been launched. Although this is remarkable scientific achievement, it is still not as good as what we imagined. To truly explore the moon as freely as Chang’e, we still need to take big strides in science and technology. Therefore, mythology is always ahead of science and reality, leading humans to realize their ideals step by step. Without mythology, we would lose our imagination and national dreams, which inspire our creativity.

Mythology is not only a reflection of social life, but is social life, and an organic component of the society. The piling project for the viaduct reflects that our technology was not well enough. The evaluation of the project is also part of this north-south viaduct project. This project is not just a matter of the engineering team, but a system consisting of both physical and cultural aspects, including myths. What is the value of this myth? That is, it reminds us to remember those viaduct builders. Myths help spread stories about those heroes, giving wings to our history and national spirit. History would be a lifeless thing without mythology. Many historical books are better written than Records of the Three Kingdoms 三国志, but none compares to its popularity. Romance of the Three Kingdoms 三国演义 adds folk culture and mythology in history, that is why it is so intriguing. One example of folk stories in this book is that Zhuge Liang (famous Chinese strategist in the history) invented Mantou (steam bum) to replace human heads for sacrifice ceremonies in the southeast. This story reflects Zhuge’s humanism. Nowadays, southwest China is stable with multiple peoples living harmoniously together, and one reason is that several peoples claim Zhuhe as their ancestor. Without such a story, national integration will be difficult. Mythology is a component of a society, mixed with facts and rumors. It reflects and constructs the social life at the same time. Mythology is a kind of belief, an important resource for purifying social customs and realizing social governance.

Mythology is a kind of sacred narrative and structure. It is a sacred discourse system with narratives at its core. Mythological stories are generally magical and are difficult to be fulfilled by human beings. Therefore, we will feel a sense of admiration or worship, which does not diminish ourselves, but inspires human beings to pursue a higher goal of self-improvement. As our life cannot match that in mythology, we are prompted to reach that realm.

Mythology has three forms of narratives. The first is the oral narrative, which later is recorded in books. The second is the narrative of behavior and performance. For example, people go to Mount Putuo to worship, which tells how efficacious the mountain is. This act is the narrative of behavior and performance. The third is the narrative of the landscape, which includes the sacred expression of images and objects, such as temples and gods. For example, if you visit the West Lake, some sites, such as the Broken Bridge, would remind you of the story of Madame White Snake and Xu Xian. Such landscape tells people about a myth. Now there is digital mythological narrative, the Internet mythology, or the digitalization of new and traditional myths. When people are unable to make it home for the Dragon Boat Festival and the Qingming Festival, they would worship their ancestors online. This is a new narrative in the Internet age. Mr. Liuyi Xie said that mythology is folklore, folklore is mythology, and many stories in folklore are mythical narratives. For example, the myth about the Dragon Boat Festival, that Qu Yuan sending a dream saying the sacrifices for him was eaten by fish, is an oral narrative of mythology. People throwing Zongzi (rice dumpling wrapped with bamboo leaves) into the river is a behavior narrative of mythology. During a dragon boat race on the Dragon Boat Festival, you will see people displaying Qu Yuan’s statues, and throwing Zongzi into the river, among a series of other activities. Language, behaviors, and landscapes constitute all aspects about mythology.

Some ethnic groups believe that life spans of animals and humans were arranged by heaven. Once upon a time, Man was late for receiving the life span arrangement from heaven. Dog went early and he received 60 years, while Man only received seven years. Neither was satisfied. Dog didn’t want to live that long, and Man did not want to live so short, so the two discussed to exchange their lifespans. Dog proposed a condition that Man has to provide food and shelter to Dog, which Man agreed. From then on, the human being can live for more than sixty years old, and dogs can only live for about seven years old. Dogs and the human beings are in a very harmonious relationship. Mythology is an interpretation and a construction of life.

Below we talk about the system of the mythology about heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon.

In China, such mythology has formed a complete narrative even for children. This narrative is a holistic system centered on heaven. It is also at the very core of Chinese culture. Thousand Character Classic 千字文, a primer of Chinese characters for children, started with the four images:

  • Sky is dark, earth is yellow, and the universe is expansive.

  • The sun rises and sets, the moon waxes and wanes, and the stars spread all over the sky.

  • 天地玄黄,宇宙洪荒。

  • 日月盈昃,辰宿列张。

A while back, the swimming athlete Yuanhui Fu famously said, “I have used the prehistoric power,” and “prehistoric power” became an Internet buzzword. In fact, Thousand Character Classic, which has been circulating for one or two thousand years, started by describing the initial state of heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon. Another children’s encyclopedia, Youxue Qionglin 幼学琼林, also opened with similar topics:

  • As the chaotic universe was opened,

  • The heaven and the earth began its formation.

  • The light and clear air floated up to form the heaven,

  • And the heavy and dull air solidified into the earth.

  • The sun, the moon, Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and Saturn are called the Seven Stars.

  • Heaven, earth, and people are called the Three Ways.

  • The sun governs all the yang, and the moon symbolizes yin.

  • 混沌初开,乾坤始奠。

  • 气之轻清上浮者为天,

  • 气之重浊下凝者为地。

  • 日月五星,谓之七政;

  • 天地与人,谓之三才。

  • 日为众阳之宗,月乃太阴之象。

We can tell that the knowledge about heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon is quite basic, which children in the past all had to learn by heart.

But this knowledge comes from the national sacrificial system since the pre-Qin period. How did we worship heaven? Book of Rites 礼记says, burning firewood on the altar, burning horses, cattle and other sacrifices, is used to worship heaven; burying the sacrifices is to worship the earth. This is the sacrifice. After the animals are burned, aroma will come out. It communicates with heaven through the smell. Heaven then is aware that people are offering sacrifices to him, and he will send his blessing to humans. 燔柴于泰坛, 祭天也; 瘗埋于泰折, 祭地也; 用 犊 People imagined that the most direct connection with heaven was through smell. In the past, people would place a bowl of fresh blood on ceremonies, which produced a blood smell. In the prehistoric age, people thought the blood was the freshest thing. People also felt that the sense of touch could convey messages. For example, they would touch the head of a stone turtle to wish for good luck; and touch the behind of a god statue to wish for a lifetime free of sickness. So the heads of the stone turtles in many places are very smooth. There is also visual communication. People sometimes danced to the god and thought that the god could see it. Another form is the auditory communication. People would recite poems in front of the god. What is important is the material offering, such as sacrifices, meat such as beef or lamb, vegetarian food, flowers, even treasured jade. In short, it must be good things that were offered to the god. Devoted believers even killed their own children to offer to the god. That is, of course, an extreme example. The important thing is that the communication between humans and the god must be sincere. Therefore, people resort to all forms of sacrifices to communicate with their god: olfactory, tactile, visual, auditory, material, and spiritual.

So, to worship the earth, people usually bury good sacrifices. This is to thank the earth for the harvest.

Emperors used to pay tribute to the sun, and the moon. These were royal ritual activities. According to Book of Rites: Interpretation of Scriptures 礼记·经解, the Son of Heaven shares the same status as heaven and the earth, so his virtues should match those of heaven and the earth to benefit all things; he is as bright as the sun, and the moon, and his light touches the four seas without missing the minute and the trivial 天子者, 与天地参, 故德配天地, 兼利万物; 与日月并明, 明照四海而不遗微小. The point is not to take advantage of heaven and earth, but to have virtues that are comparable to them. We used to attack the notion of destiny because it is problematic. But we should never dismiss the belief related to heaven, the earth, the sun, and the moon. Even the emperors need to learn virtues of heaven and earth, which is to nurture everything with wind, rain, thunder, and lightning. Emperors should maintain a clean and just political environment for not only the powerful and the wealthy, but for all people; just like the sun, and the moon cast their light to everyone. Book of Rites, as an ancient classic, discusses heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon in exactly this order: these four elements are our examples.

What is the heaven exactly? We are not sure. For a long time, it is just an abstract idea. In Christianity and Buddhism, there are god images. For Islamism, there is none. Does the Chinese sky deity have an image? It has always been obscure, but the sun and the moon can be represented by some images. “The ritual pays respect to heaven by worshipping the sun and the moon, which have their designated places in the east and the west, respectively 郊之祭, 大报天而主日, 配以月。祭日于坛, 祭月于坎, 以别幽明, 以制上下。祭日于东, 祭月于西, 以别外内, 以端其位.” This establishes order and constructs time and space.

After emperors learned the spirit and virtues of heaven and earth, they needed to understand the social order through the sun and the moon. In other words, the social order was learned from the natural orders of heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon. “The sun rises from the east, and the moon rises from the west. The constant interchange between yin and yang leads to harmony under heaven 日出于东,月生于西,阴阳长短,终始相巡,以致天下之和.” How to realize a harmonious society? We can learn it from the harmonious order in heaven and earth. The Book of Rites 礼记 is an important book. It is a book of social rules and myths. Heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon constitute a complete framework, which emperors used to build social orders. In the past, there was a question of whether or not to share the resource of Chinese mythology with the general public. How to turn the emperors’ privilege to a common belief of the people? In history, it had been difficult for people to participate in a heaven sacrifice, while local governments or even families played major roles in earth sacrifices. Similarly, the sun sacrifice turned from a universal belief to the emperors’ privilege; and the moon mythology had been popular among people, although the moon had been a symbol of the queen. So heaven and the sun are in the same category, and their worship is mainly conducted by emperors; earth and the moon are in the same category, and are worshiped among the people as well.

The mythology of heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon gave rise to the construction of social order. In the past we criticized hierarchy, because in nature, we are equal in spirit and rights. But in reality, people have different capabilities and conditions, which create hierarchy in reality. For example, there is hierarchy in economic conditions and power. Without hierarchies, a society would lack momentum. The key question is whether such hierarchies can be changed through efforts in certain conditions. In the continuous development of the Chinese history, a very important drive is class and hierarchy. Just as the constant geographical changes, social hierarchies often change, sometimes for political reasons, some because of individual efforts and opportunities.

As Book of Rites goes, things keep moving and integrating without stop, thus music flourishes 流而不息, 合同而化, 而乐兴焉. The rhythm in heaven and earth is indeed like music: “Seeds are planted in spring and grow in summer. This shows the benevolence of heaven and earth. They are harvested in the fall and stored in winter. This shows the justice of heaven and earth 春作夏长, 仁也。秋敛冬藏, 义也.” Different virtues are highlighted in a natural order, which is an important piece of wisdom. The Chinese culture stresses the union of heaven and people, which started from here. “In music, harmony is stressed, which follows the rules of heaven; in rituals, difference is stressed, which follows the rules of earth 乐者敦和, 率神而从天;礼者别宜, 居鬼而从地.” Here we can see the difference between music and rituals. “Therefore, a saint should compose music that corresponds to heaven, and design rituals that correspond to earth. With music and rituals in place, heaven and earth can be said to have fulfilled their responsibilities 故圣人作乐以应天, 制礼以配地。礼乐明备, 天地官矣.” Music and rituals also differentiate people’s status: “Heaven is high, and earth is low, which determines the positions of the emperor and his subjects 天尊地卑, 君臣定矣。卑高已陈, 贵贱位矣.” In fact, high and low only refer to different positions. “The essence of earth rises, and the essence of heaven falls. Yin and yang rub against each other, and heaven and earth communicate through thunder, lightning, wind, and rain. Motivated by the four seasons, warmed by the sun and the moon, all creatures flourish. Thus, music is the harmony of heaven and earth 地气上齐, 天气下降, 阴阳相摩, 天地相荡, 鼓之以雷霆, 奋之以风雨, 动之以四时, 暖之以日月, 而百化兴焉。如此, 则乐者天地之和也.” This sense of order is very important. China’s development is related to order, which is a natural representation of differences.

Where is heaven? As an abstract existence, it is actually an advantage, because its development will not be limited. The Chinese believe that heaven is an omnipresent supreme master. “Heaven is watching people’s moves.” If this is true, it will restrict our behaviors. People feel that the circle is more in line with the presentation of heaven’s omnipresence, so the symbol of heaven is a circle.

The venue of sky-worshipping 5,000 years ago showed that people set fire in a high mountain to pay tribute to heaven (see Fig. 1.1). The notion of a round heaven has been passed on for a long time into the Ming and Qing dynasties, and today.

Fig. 1.1
figure 1

An altar of the Red Mountain culture

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The Temple of Heaven of the Ming and Qing dynasties reflects inheritance of the heaven belief from the prehistoric age: the Temple is round, which has been the symbol for heaven. As heaven worship was not allowed among people, we do not have a strong affiliation with the round shape. The idea of round-shaped heaven is mainly circulated in royal families (see Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2
figure 2

Temple of Heaven in Beijing

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Is the heaven a round-shaped surface? No, it is not. Heaven has nine levels, so it is a three-dimensional existence. Qu Yuan asked in Heavenly Questions: who created these nine levels? This indicates that in the Warring States period, the mythology of nine levels of heaven had been popular.

In myths and legends, the heaven was supported by eight pillars. Where were these pillars? Qu Yuan asked. But that was from myths, and theoretically it did not exist. In ancient days, transportation had not been well developed so it was impossible to travel around in exploration of this question. However, many places in China are named Tianzhu (sky pillar) Mountain, such as the ones in Anhui, Changyang of Hubei, Shanxi, Fujian, Shandong, and Gansu. There were almost eight pillars! Many of these mountains were named “sky pillar” because they were related to the idea of heaven being supported by pillars, which could be found in myths such as Gonggong (the water god) breaking one of pillars as he smashed his head on Mount Buzhou, and Nüwa cutting off a turtle’s legs to re-establish these pillars.

So how was the earth placed? According to ancient Chinese mythology, the earth is hung on ropes from heaven. This statement emphasizes the dependence between heaven and earth. Heaven was supported by the pillars on the earth, so it would not fall down, and the earth was pulled by the heaven, so the ground would be solid. Such description cannot stand the scrutiny of reasons, but the concept of heaven and earth being one is fully embodied in this myth. The positions of heaven and earth became the basis of social hierarchy. Therefore, the theory of destiny has long dominated people’s mind.

But this order was destroyed by a god called Gonggong. According to ancient mythology, after Gonggong was defeated by Zhuanxu in their fight for the throne, Gonggong lost his temper, smashed his head on Mount Buzhou, and broke this sky pillar, so heaven fell on the northwest side. So did the sun, the moon, and the stars. Another consequence was that the rope tied to the east side of the earth was broken, so the earth sunk on the east, and water flew to the southeast. This myth explains the natural geography that can be observed from the Central Plains in China: rivers flow to the east. The sun, the moon and the stars rise from the east and set in the west: that is as much a natural rule as a potential myth for geographical politics. In ancient Chinese society, northwest China had the political geographical advantage.

The myths about heaven are abundant. There is a complete narrative system about heaven, earth, the sun and the moon. Our current explanation of the universe is the big bang theory. Is this scientific? Who knows? Scientists only have this assumption. While we have scientific assumptions and discussions, please do not ignore the mythological ideas about heaven and earth.

Let’s take a look at southeast China. Shanghai, as one of the birthplaces of ancient Chinese civilization, can be found in the narrative of the heaven-and-earth mythology. “The blue bi is for heaven, and the yellow cong is for earth 苍璧礼天, 黄琮礼地.” The Liangzhu culture, which is close to Shanghai, gave a specific image to the heaven god. Heaven was no longer just a circle. Six thousand years ago, heaven god might be like this (see Fig. 1.3), as if wearing a pair of glasses. Traces of fire were found on the top of Fuquan Mountain in Shanghai. Some people think it was left from a sacrifice to the heaven god.

Fig. 1.3
figure 3

The heaven god in the Liangzhu culture

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The jade cong and bi used in sky sacrifice in the Liangzhu culture were often found in archeological discoveries in Shanghai, indicating that this place had a common mythological narrative of heaven and earth.

What other names have been used for China’s heaven? One was shangdi 上帝. In China, shangdi is one with heaven. Book of Rites: Kings’ Systems 礼记·王制 said, “When the son of heaven goes to war, he should pay tribute to shangdi, the nation, and gods 天子将出,类乎上帝,宜乎社, 造乎祢.” It is about worshipping shangdi, or heaven. This leads to our heaviest question today: where is shangdi now after having influenced China for five thousand years?

According to Book of Rites: Moon 礼记·月令, “the sons of heaven pray for harvest to shangdi on the first day of the new year. 天子乃以元日祈谷于上帝.” Although the first day of the year fell on different dates in Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, people prayed to shangdi on the New Year’s day, respectively.

When emperors offered sacrifices to heaven, their garment bore symbols of heaven. According to The Book of Rites: the Suburbs 礼记·郊特牲, “On the day of sacrifice, the king wore the ritual garment with symbols of heaven. The flags had twelve ribbons, and the royal robe had the sun and the moon patterns to symbolize heaven. All things originated from heaven, and people originated from their ancestors. Therefore, ancestors and heaven were worshipped at the same time 祭之日, 王被衮以象天;旗十有二旒, 龙章而设日月, 以象天也。万物本乎天, 人本乎祖, 此所以配上帝也.” The symbols of heaven were used in shangdi worship: heaven and shangdi were one, so shangdi was also known as Haotian (vast sky) Shangdi 昊天上帝. Later, Comprehensive Institutions: Rituals 通典·礼典 stated: “Haotian Shangdi is called thus, because ‘haotian’ meant expansive vital energy. The one that people respect the most is di (the emperor), who is likened to tian (heaven), so heaven is also known as shangdi (up emperor). 所谓昊天上帝者, 盖元气广大则称昊天, 远视苍苍即称苍天, 人之所尊, 莫过于帝, 之于天,故称上帝. This clearly explains the relationship between shangdi and tian.”

“All things originated from heaven,” this is a fundamental proposition in creation mythology, that is, everything was created by heaven, and by shangdi. So, paying tribute to heaven is showing gratitude to our creator. Our studies in creation mythology have overlooked this point, which should be corrected. Heaven and ancestors were worshipped together in the sacrificing ceremonies of shangdi, who had been an actual existence in people’s mind. For example, The Book of Songs 诗经 contained a piece that went: “Emperor Wen in heaven, oh how brilliant he looks. Although the Zhou state is old, its manifest destiny is renewed. With a promising future, Zhou has the blessing of god. Rise and fall, Emperor Wen’s soul always stays by the side of god 文王在上, 于昭于天。周虽旧邦, 其命维新。有周不显,帝命不时。文王陟降, 在帝左右.” After Emperor Wen passed away, he went to heaven and stayed by the side of the highest authority, shangdi, or god.

From the pre-Qin to the Qing dynasty, there were thirteen major rituals, and twelve secondary ones annually. The worship of shangdi was a major ritual, together with harvest, rain, and earth, among others 大祀十有三: 正月上辛祈谷, 孟夏常雩, 冬至圜丘, 皆祭昊天上帝;夏至方泽祭皇地祇;中祀十有二: 春分朝日, 秋分夕月. When Christianity arrived in China, “God” was translated as Master of Sky 天主. Later, Ricci took shangdi from Chinese to translate “God”. After the Qing dynasty was overthrown, so was god. China became a country without god, and shangdi that had existed for five thousand years was also gone.

Yuandan 元旦 was the best day in China, and we used this name to refer to the New Year’s in the western calendar. We yielded the name of shangdi to Christianity, but lost it in our own context. That poses a serious problem. Flipping through our history, never had there been a dynasty when the emperor stopped worshipping heaven and shangdi. In fact, every emperor had to pay respect to shangdi before he took the throne. China’s heaven and shangdi mythology is closely related to the sacrifice rituals and the celebrations of the beginning of the year, as well as the knowledge of nature and the universe. So, we must claim intangible cultural heritage to better protect and promote it.

Next, let’s talk about the mythology of earth.

According to Book of Rites, “The she shrine is used to worship earth. Earth carries everything, and heaven gives people omens. People take their fortunes from earth, and make laws according to heaven, so people respect heaven and feel close to earth, and use nice sacrifices to return earth’s favors 社所以神地之道也。地载万物, 天垂象。取财于地, 取法于天, 是以尊天而亲地也, 故教民美报焉.” People worshiped earth god to pay back earth’s nourishment. Earth supports everything. Without earth, the creations of heaven would have nowhere to stay. So we say that heaven gives birth to creatures, and earth raises them; both are indispensable. Therefore, earth god or she god is an important creation god.

Heaven represents yang, and earth yin. Although the popular belief is that too much yin is not good, but yang without yin is not desirable, either. So “the son of heaven’s she shrine must be exposed to fog, dew, wind, and rain, in order to communicate with heaven and earth 天子大社必受霜露风雨, 以达天地之气也.” The she shrine must be outdoors without any cover. “Therefore, the overthrown dynasty’s she shrine shall be covered from the sun.” Enemy’s she shrine also contained aura, and people did not dare to tamper with it. After the Shang dynasty overthrew Xia and held the enthronement ceremony at Xia’s shrine, someone suggested removing it. But Tang, the emperor objected and wrote an article titled “Xia Shrine 夏社”, saying that it should not be removed because Shang and Xia shared the same shrine. According to Records of the Grand Historian, after Emperor Wu of the Zhou dynasty suppressed the last Shang emperor, he had people sweep and clean the Shang’s shrine, and reported to heaven that he replaced Shang and enforced justice on behalf of heaven. In fact, Shang’s shrine was inherited from the Xia dynasty. After Zhou was established, they built their own shrine. But they dared not remove Shang’s shrine, so they covered it with a shed. Earth shrine had to be exposed to the sun to remain its vitality. After it was covered, it only served a symbolic purpose.

The state had value land ownership, and claimed all the land under heaven. In the same vein, earth sacrifice attached great importance. The shrine built by a king for all the people is called the Great Shrine; the one for himself is called the King’s Shrine. The shrines built by dukes are called the State Shrines; the ones for themselves are called the Dukes’ Shrines. The shrines built by the rank of literati and below are called Zhi Shrine. Gentlemen and ordinary people may have ancestral or earth god tablets 王为群姓立社, 曰大社。王自为立社, 曰王社。诸侯为百姓立社, 曰国社。诸侯自立社, 曰侯社。大夫以下, 成群立社曰置社。庶士、庶人立一祀, 或立户,或立灶.” That is related to land ownership. After land became privately owned, many places began to pay respect to God of the Soil (see Fig. 1.4).

Fig. 1.4
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A sacrifice tablet for the God of the Soil

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Who is the God of the Soil? He is Gonggong’s son, named Houtu, or Goulong. Many scholars believe that he is Yu the Great (see Fig. 1.5). Yu was the first-generation God of the Soil, who has been very much revered. Later, more town literati and local gods joined the ranks and assumed the positions of Lord of the Soil and Goddess of the Soil. The God of the Soil can be found in the south and the west, but is rarely seen in Shanghai. Why is that? In Shanghai, you might hold a deed, but it is hard to feel the land. Everybody lives in tall buildings, and land disappears from our horizon.

Fig. 1.5
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Yu the great as God of the Soil

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The belief in God of the Soil is directly related to land ownership. In Macau, you can find sacrifices to God of the Soil at every door. Once I went to Macau, and found God of the Soil and Fortune in front of every door. Curious about whether people on the sixth floor had it, I entered a building, and found that God of the Soil and Fortune was placed by every door, regardless which floor it was. The statue was lighted by electronic lights, and remained on in the night. In addition, God of the Soil was found in the front of shrines for other gods. People had to pay respect to God of the Soil before other gods. So God of the Soil was all encompassing. I think that we should have faith in God of the Soil as we enjoy fortunes from land. The money from the skyrocketing house price all comes from land.

Next, I will talk about the sun mythology, which has great influence in China. The sun god is a bird, as shown in Double-phoenix Facing the Sun (7,000 years B.C., Hemudu culture) 双凤朝阳. When designing the symbol for Chinese cultural heritage, we chose the sun god from Chengdu Jinsha relics from over 3,000 years ago. That is a piece of gold with four birds, representing the four seasons. No modern design was its match. The 12 arcs represented twelve months. This is the most representative item for sun worship (see Fig. 1.6).

Fig. 1.6
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Four birds surrounding the sun pattern

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In Chinese mythology, there is a three-legged bird in the sun, which also appeared in the paintings in the Han dynasty. How come it has three legs? Mainly for stability, perhaps. A two-legged wine cup does not stand firm. In fact, many utensils made of bronze or pottery have three legs (see Fig. 1.7). Some people explain that the third leg represents the penis, which makes some sense, too, as it represents the connection between the holy narrative and the daily life. The rudest curse word is in fact ri 日(sun). Rude as it is, it is also sacred as it was related to reproduction. In folk culture, a ritual is about praying for sons. The family planning policy once restricted this practice. Now facing the aging population, many regions resumed this practice. The narrative about the sun is related to reproduction, so the sun mythology is also important mythology about the creation of the world and human beings.

Fig. 1.7
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Three-legged bird

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The sacrifice to heaven and earth is mainly for the sun worship 郊之祭, 大报天而主日. That is Zhou’s narrative. The sun worship lasted into the Qing dynasty and the modern times. Even today, people hold ceremonies in the Sun Temple. So the sun worship is carried on (see Fig. 1.8).

Fig. 1.8
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The Sun Temple in the Qing dynasty

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In my opinion, the purpose of sun worship was clear, which was to wish for light and warmth. According to Book of Rites: Interpretation of Scriptures 礼记·经解, the Son of Heaven shares the same status as heaven and earth, so his virtues should match those of heaven and earth to benefit all things; he is as bright as the sun, and the moon, and his light touches the four seas without missing the minute and the trivial 天子者, 与天地参, 故德配天地, 兼利万物;与日月并明, 明照四海而不遗微小.

It is a high standard to require ethics like heaven and earth. To benefit all things means to be benevolent to all things under heaven, does it not? To touch the four seas means to keep a clean and fair political environment, does it not? To not miss the minute and the trivial means to care for the weak, does it not? So the ancient sun worship and the sun mythology represent a political ideology that is derived from the ethics represented by the sun and the moon. Undoubtedly, they are the good traditions that we need to carry on.

The sun exudes a sense of holiness, and so does the moon. People respect the moon because it is a symbol of beauty. The moon mythology is very interesting. First of all, it goes that a toad lives on the moon. Recently, some scholars say that the toad is actually Chang’e, who has a human body and a snake’s tail. The toad, dragon snake, and the moon, they three are one (see Fig. 1.9).

Fig. 1.9
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Chang’e flying to the moon depicted on the Han stone relief

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The sun and moon mythology cannot be separated in our narrative. The sun is represented by a golden crow, and the moon by a toad. In the past, the crow and the toad always appeared at the same time. But for the appearance of the dragon totem, we would be called the descendants of the bird and the toad. After Yu, the dragon image began to be widely accepted by Chinese and constituted the core creation myth. The dragon belief continued to grow among diversified totems of the Azure Dragon, the White Tiger, the Black Tortoise and the Vermilion Bird. Although the moon was originally related to toad worship, the toad later grew into the dragon’s shape. Here, the dragon, the sun and the moon, the toad, and the bird integrated in a magical way.

The sun worship and the moon worship also integrated with the worship of Fuxi and Nüwa. Fuxi was related to the sun, and Nüwa the moon. They hold the sun and the moon respectively, with dragon-shaped tails intertwined, and become the dragon’s descendants. This is a major cultural integration, which was completed in the Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasty. The Han stone relief and the Tang painting both vividly depicted the intimate relationship of Fuxi and Nüwa (see Fig. 1.10).

Fig. 1.10
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Fuxi and Nüwa in Han stone relief and Tang painting

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This process shows cultural integration and identity. People of all ethnic groups identify with the mythology of the sun and the moon, and the identity of dragon’s descendants, which show the inclusiveness of the Chinese culture. The identification of Fuxi and Nüwa, the sun, the moon, the bird, and the toad as collective cultural symbols is still ongoing, with a long history and expansive geographical coverage. Collective cultural symbols are the Chinese people’s pride. In the paintings in Xinjiang in the Tang dynasty, Fuxi has a beard of the Hu people. Multi-ethnic regions have high identification of the dragon, which reflects no trivial issue but cultural identification and the recognition of cultural diversity.

The moon mythology is passed on in folk culture in the form of moon worship on the Mid-Autumn Festival. For example, the students in East China Normal University are engaged in this activity, which is also attended by overseas friends (see Fig. 1.11). The young men provided support only, and did not participate in the ceremony, as tradition had it. Of course, nowadays, there are men burning incense for the moon. In the coming year, during the Fall Equinox or the Mid-Autumn, we plan to perform such ceremony with moon cakes, watermelons, and peanuts to wish for family happiness, peace, and development.

Fig. 1.11
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Moon ritual hosted in East China Normal University on Mid-Autumn Festival

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Next, I am going to tell the story of Chang’e. We know that she stole the precious elixir of life from her husband. Another version goes that Chang’e has an affair with her husband’s student. A problematic woman, she is. The Chinese people, being tolerant, choose to forgive her, and drew poetic pictures of her flying to the moon (see Fig. 1.12). It shows the generosity of Chinese culture. The moon mythology advocates for loyalty and tolerance. Tolerance is the key to building a harmonious society. The Mid-Autumn Festival provides an opportunity to forgive and adjust relationship. During several lectures at Shanghai Museum, I mentioned that the Mid-Autumn Festival was the females’ festival, and so was the Double Seventh Day. The exclusion of males during these holidays show that women’s status was sometimes higher in the traditional society because they monopolize a cultural resource. In Shanghai, the wife manages the home in many families, which in fact reflects the leading powers of females.

Fig. 1.12
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Chang’e flying to the moon

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The mythology about heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon is the epitome of creation mythology, and we put it at the forefront of the Chinese creation myths. Not only because these myths are essential in creation myths, but also they show the distinctive nature of the Chinese creation myths. Heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon are creators of the world and human beings, and their mythology should be shared by everyone.

There has been a balance of power between the government and the people. The heaven sacrifice had been the royal family’s privilege, while people were not allowed. But people would plead “my heaven!” when in difficulties, just like the westerners say “my god” when calling for their savior. In the Song dynasty, the two powers were combined as the Jade Emperor appeared as the embodiment of heaven. Later, the division appeared again and lasted until the Qing dynasty. Today, beliefs in the Jade Emperor and Zhenwu Emperor continue among people, which is also the inheritance of the Chinese shangdi. We support the rejuvenation of the heaven-and-earth sacrifice and the belief in shangdi. The worship of the God of the Soil is a great cultural heritage.

Mythology about heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon is an enormous cultural legacy that needs to be protected and passed on. We should first pay respects to nature and its order; after that we can strive for harmony, beauty, tolerance, and identity. Our worship to the moon shows our trust in beauty. Such profound legacy has universal recognition, as people from all nations face heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon. That constitutes a basic premise for international cultural exchange. Such mythology should be protected as a part of China’s intangible cultural heritage. I wish everyone can inherit and pass on the cultural essence contained in such mythology.