Abstract
We study the causes and effects of mass motorisation in the United States of America in terms of city shape and function. First, we build up the historical context that explains how the motor car was adopted by the masses in the 1920s. Then, we study the evolution of the planning regime necessary to accommodate the motor car into the fabric of American cities throughout the twentieth century. We argue that such planning regime, characterised by complex and micromanaged ordinances imposing strict zoning, low density and minimum parking requirements, is far from the American free-market ideals. It is, however, a way to manage some externalities caused by car dependency and fits with cultural norms regarding local provision and funding of public goods. We emphasise the problematic spatial aspect of car dependency as a result of American planning. We also analyse the role of racial segregation and exclusion in the strong political choice in favour of motorisation. Finally, we discuss several contemporary schools of thought and concepts arising from the American approach to planning.
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Notes
- 1.
Or elevated as in Berlin and many American cities.
- 2.
In some cases, those services were being electrified, i.e. the lines that became the Southern Railway and provide commuter service to Surrey, Kent and Sussex.
- 3.
See any urban sociology manual, for instance Monti et al. (2014).
- 4.
“It a literary fairy tale about a set of time-travelling boots. /…/ The fairy tale concludes with the clerk's neighbour, a theological student, asking for the galoshes. The clerk gives them to him. As the student walks away he wishes he could travel to Switzerland and Italy, whereupon he is on top of the Mont Blanc. In the freezing weather he wishes he was on the other side of the Alps, where he ends up in Italy, near lake Trasimeno. There he enjoys the beautiful landscapes, but he is confronted with the local people’s hunger and poverty. He concludes that it would be better off if his body could rest, while the spirit flies on without it. The galoshes grant his wish and he is now peacefully dead. Andersen concludes with a quote by Solon: “Call no man happy until he rests in his grave.” Dame Care then tells the other fairy that her predictions have indeed all came true. Though she does grant the student a favour. She takes off his galoshes and takes them back with her, causing him to be brought back to life.” Andersen (1949).
- 5.
Motorised road transport played an increasingly important role during the war. For instance, the entire fleet of Paris taxis was mobilised in 1916 to bring soldiers to the frontline at Verdun, Bernede (2006), although the bulk of supplied were brought by a narrow-gauge railway parallel to the Voie Sacree road. By the end of the war, thousands of surplus military trucks came to compete and caused the demise of many local railway lines.
- 6.
See Bengtson (2011) for a summary and commentary of the film.
- 7.
Mees (2009).
- 8.
Shoup (2017).
- 9.
An interesting example of an early parking house can be found in Venice, near Piazzale Roma.
- 10.
See, for instance, Birch (1980).
- 11.
The original suburb of Radburn achieved some success in terms of use of the pedestrian infrastructure, by the early 70s almost have of the residents were actually walking to the shops. That’s very unusual for residents of American subdivisions.
- 12.
The word urban is often used as a synonym of black in modern American English, for instance in urban contemporary as a radio format or the use of urban culture as an euphemism for African American culture or more precisely Black American culture.
- 13.
A more detailed account of the story can be found in Fluck (1986).
- 14.
See Rothstein (2017) for an excellent summary of the history of redlining to this day.
- 15.
Such as the streamlined Presidents’ Conference Committee (PCC) cars and the Brilliners manufactured by J. G. in Philadelphia. Earlier in the century Brill exported interurban technology to Europe and Japan. PCCs were in relatively widespread service with the best streetcar companies by the mid 1930s. Some are still in revenue service nowadays.
- 16.
The most popular of those being the 1998 film Who Framed Roger Rabbit. See also Slater (1997) for a more serious account of the GM streetcar conspiracy.
- 17.
Or in other more American words, McDonald’s is convenient, a staple.
- 18.
In other words, search costs in a car-based city are higher. Sellers will try to minimise those by making themselves more visible.
- 19.
The text is probably better known from the book The Australian Ugliness, Boyd (2010).
- 20.
Yglesias (2019).
- 21.
The Downs-Thomson Paradox, originally thought and tested for London, applies to congested cities with extensive, effective public transport.
- 22.
Estimates elaborated by the authors and based on prices and other data available on-line.
- 23.
Mumford (1986).
- 24.
Notably public expenditure as a percentage of gdp in Switzerland is well below the OECD average and even lower than of Australia.
- 25.
Other Australian public transport systems are not experiencing such strong growth.
- 26.
For instance, Sydney’s suburban railway is designed to provide one seat trips for commuters. It is, therefore, are tangled system which relies on branching rather than transfers. That, coupled with the surge in demand, causes serious capacity and reliability problems. The new Sydney Metro system should solve some of those problems, but it will take years to complete. There is also rampant NYMBYism which, given the centralised planning, has a lower change of success than in America. However, NYMBYs are still able to lobby their local members, get media exposure, and occasionally achieve results.
- 27.
Tyler Cowen’s blog is full of such claims and links to the relevant articles.
- 28.
We find the definition given by Wikipedia good enough: Human capital is the stock of habits, knowledge, social and personality attributes (including creativity) embodied in the ability to perform labour so as to produce economic value.
- 29.
Glaeser actually seemed to like Florida’s book, considering it a good summary of urban economics themes and ideas (Glaeser 2005). However, both he points out there is little evidence to support Florida’s claims about the Gay Index and the Bohemian Index. They both become irrelevant after controlling for human capital, see Glaeser and Saiz (2003).
- 30.
Other than in public good provision, there is a stark difference in income redistribution between the US and Europe. In general, European countries are much more generous to the poor. There, transfers to low income recipients come mostly from progressive taxation rather charitable donations like in the US. See Alesina et al. (2001) for a detailed explanation.
- 31.
In terms of ridership per km modern American light rail is on par with what is simply achieved with buses in Europe or Japan. Trams in some central European cities such as Budapest of Prague move an order of magnitude (that’s 10 times more) passengers than American systems. Still, light rail in the American urban left’s darling as it attracts some middle-class patronage and oppose to buses, only used by the numerous literally unwashed American underclass.
- 32.
Graehler et al. (2019).
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Guillen, P., Komac, U. (2020). Motorisation and the City: America Leads the World. In: City Form, Economics and Culture. SpringerBriefs in Architectural Design and Technology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5741-5_8
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