Abstract
Using both rounds of India Human Development Survey (2004-05 and 2011-2012) data, this study has tracked the progress of students from enrolment to completion of the secondary level of education in India. Using a logit model, we have examined how in addition to family attributes the ‘access to school resources,’ and ‘learning activities’ of a child associated with the secondary and higher secondary school completion, post-enrolment. We find that household assets, parental education, and ‘computer or Internet usage by any household member’ are major determinants of secondary and higher secondary school completion by a student. The chances of completing both levels of schooling increase with the increase in the level of household assets and parental education, but the marginal effect of both is higher for government school children relative to private school children. We also find that the stumbling block (as a backward caste and Muslims) for most students lies at the entry to secondary school particularly for government school students. We also find that the completion of higher secondary school is robust to changes in caste and religion of the student. Moreover, the probabilities of completing higher secondary school by government and private school students are almost similar for children from the ‘wealthy families.’
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Notes
- 1.
In 2010, an estimated 98.5% of children were enrolled in primary schools as compared to 83.6% a decade earlier. Not only have initial enrolments increased, but the proportion of children who finished primary education has also risen from 71.5% in 2000 to 97.1% in 2009. However, less than two-thirds of Indian children who were eligible to be enrolled in secondary school were actually enrolled by 2010.
- 2.
‘The drop-out rate in Grades I–X continues to as high as 56.7% (56.6% for boys and 57.3% for girls). In other words, only around 43 out of every 100 Grade I cohort survive up to Grade X (Government of India 2008). Moreover, the drop-out rates of 68.4% for SCs and 76.9% for STs in Grades I–X indicate a huge wastage of resources in school education in India’ (Biswal 2011, pp. 14).
- 3.
The proportional distribution of educational budget on secondary education by State and Central government in India is 33.84% and 13.99%, respectively. The sector-wise proportional distribution of educational budget in India is provided in Table 2 of the Appendix.
- 4.
Split households are those that got split from the parent household (in 2005) between the two surveys time period and they were staying in different houses in 2011. See IHDS-II User’s Guide for more information.
- 5.
The majority of students enrolled in Classes 9 and 10 were aged 12–20 years. In order to avoid the outlier problem, we have excluded students younger than 12 years or older than 20 years.
- 6.
The total number of deleted observations due to missing values is 184, i.e. 5% of the final sample.
- 7.
Under a logit model: P(Yi = 1)/1 − P(Yi = 1) = e(βˆXi) ⇒ P(Yi = 1) = e(βˆXi)/1 + e(βXi) = F(β Xi), where: Xi {Xij, j = 1, …, J represents the vector of observations, for individual ‘i’ on ‘j’ variables, and β = βj, j = 1, …, J is the associated vector of coefficient estimates (Amemiya 1981; Greene 2003).
- 8.
The data on ownership of resources as household asset index is available in IHDS 2004–05 that contains data on different variables of goods and house owned by the household, and the quality of housing. This index is based on the values of 36 different kinds of household assets like Pakka or Kaccha house, TV, fridge, car, laptop/computer, and AC, etc.
- 9.
This might be possible that the 10th class Board exam is the first Board exam that has to be cleared by an individual, where most of the marginalised sections’ students are lagging behind as compared to advantaged groups of the society, if they want to go for higher secondary level of schooling.
- 10.
Most recent debate in case of Delhi government schools analysed that public schools are performing better than private schools in Class 12 results with passing rate of 90%. However, the Delhi government schools’ data also shows that more than 40% of the students dropped out before completing 9th or 10th class. Source: https://www.newslaundry.com/2018/06/09/delhi-government-schools-print-filtering-students-aam-aadmi-party
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Kumar, D. (2020). Tracking the Progress of a Child from Enrolment to Completion of Secondary Education in India. In: Tilak, J. (eds) Universal Secondary Education in India. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5366-0_10
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