Abstract
Since 2012, the UN Security Council has tried, with limited success, to bring in a lasting ceasefire that would pave the way for peace in Syria. With the failure of the Kofi Annan and Lakhdar Brahimi missions and following eight Geneva conferences, the peace-making effort passed to the Astana Process run by Russia, Turkey and Iran. After eight rounds in Astana, the participants have agreed to provide forces to police and keep the peace in contiguous provinces of Syria. The Astana track has effectively buttressed the Geneva track as have the dialogues in Vienna and elsewhere. This chapter examines the progress that has been possible in discussing the issues involved, on the basis of UN Security Council Resolution 2254 (2015), accepted as the best pathway towards establishing a democratic polity in Syria. The reasons for lack of success stem from both the inability of the UNSC to act unitedly and the fact that four P-5 members are actively involved in the Syrian conflict.
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Notes
- 1.
Reuters, ‘Text of Annan’s Six-point Peace Plan for Syria’, April 4, 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-ceasefire-idUSBRE8330HJ20120404. Envoy Kofi Annan’s six-point peace plan included an inclusive, Syrian-led political process, ensuring humanitarian assistance and release arbitrarily detained persons.
- 2.
Raymond Hinnebusch and I. William Zartman, ‘UN Mediation in the Syrian Crisis: From Kofi Annan to Lakhdar Brahimi’, International Peace Institute, March 2016, https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/IPI-Rpt-Syrian-Crisis2.pdf.
- 3.
Miranda Sissons and Abdul Razzaq Al-Saidi, ‘Iraq’s de-Baathification Still Haunts the Country’, aljazeera.com, March 12, 2013, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/03/201331055338463426.html
- 4.
Yuri Barmin, ‘Moscow’s 11 Principles for Peace in Syria’, Russia Direct, January 29, 2015, https://Russia-Direct.Org/Analysis/Moscows-11-Principles-Peace-Syria
- 5.
Editors, ‘Head of Syrian Opposition’s HNC Resigns’, Reuters, November 20, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-hnc/head-of-syrian-oppositions-hnc-resigns-statement-idUSKBN1DK26N.
- 6.
Editor, ‘Divisions Within the High Negotiations Committee on the Turkish Offensive’, Enab Baladi, October 21, 2019, https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2019/10/divisions-within-the-high-negotiations-committee-on-the-turkish-offensive/.
- 7.
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- 8.
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- 9.
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- 10.
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- 11.
Sinem Cingiz, ‘Why Is the 1998 Adana Pact Between Turkey and Syria Back in the News’, Arab News, January 25, 2019, http://www.arabnews.com/node/1441931.
- 12.
Reuters, ibid.
- 13.
Robert Ford and Mark Ward, ‘Assad’s Syria Plays Dirty with US Humanitarian Aid’, The Hill, December 2, 2018, https://thehill.com/opinion/national-security/373449-assads-syria-plays-dirty-with-us-humanitarian-aid.
- 14.
UN Security Council, ‘Amid Staggering Levels of Need, Aid Delivery in Syria Crucial to Prevent Humanitarian Catastrophe, Relief Coordinator Warns Security Council’, Reliefweb, February 26, 2019, https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/amid-staggering-levels-need-aid-delivery-syria-crucial-prevent.
- 15.
Edith M. Lederer, ‘More Than 100,000 People Detained, Missing in Syria’, Global News, August 7, 2019, https://globalnews.ca/news/5737295/syria-conflict-detained-missing/.
- 16.
Ibid.
- 17.
Staff Writer, ‘Syria: Russia and Turkey Agree to Ceasefire in Battered Idlib’, The Defence Post, March 5, 2020, https://thedefensepost.com/2020/03/05/syria-idlib-ceasefire-putin-erdogan/.
- 18.
William Schabs, ‘Why Are Chemical Weapons Worse Than Other Weapons of Mass Destruction’, The Guardian, April 25, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/apr/25/chemical-weapons-mass-destruction-syria-nuclear.
- 19.
Brian Benoit, ‘Sins of the Father: Syrian President Hafez Assad’s Legacy of Chemical Weapons and the Balance of Power in the Middle East’, Readex Blog, March 5, 2018, https://www.readex.com/blog/sins-father-syrian-president-hafez-assad%E2%80%99s-legacy-chemical-weapons-and-balance-power-middle.
- 20.
Daryl Kimball, ‘Timeline of Syrian Chemical Weapons Activity 2012–2019’, Arms Control Association, March 2019, https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Timeline-of-Syrian-Chemical-Weapons-Activity.
- 21.
BBC News, ‘Syria ‘Chemical Attack’: Russia and US in Fierce Row at UN’, April 9, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-43706579.
- 22.
Alex Ward, ‘The US Has Bombed Syria to Punish It for a Chemical Attack’, Vox, April 16, 2018, https://www.vox.com/2018/4/13/17221420/trump-syria-attack-strike-assad-russia-response-chemical-weapon.
- 23.
Stuart Winer, ‘Israeli Jets Said to Hit Chemical Weapons, Missile Sites in Syria’, Times of Israel, September 7, 2017, https://www.timesofisrael.com/israeli-planed-reportedly-hit-chemical-weapons-site-in-syria/.
- 24.
Melanie Garson, ‘Is It Time for Israel to Reveal the Truth About Its Chemical Weapons’, The Conversation, May 21, 2018, https://theconversation.com/is-it-time-for-israel-to-reveal-the-truth-about-its-chemical-weapons-95604.
- 25.
BBC News, ‘Syrian War: Aleppo ‘Gas Attack’ Sparks Russian Strikes’, November 25, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-4633714.
- 26.
Ibid., William Schabs.
- 27.
US State Department, ‘State Sponsors of Terrorism’.
- 28.
AJ Impact, ‘The Rise and Fall of ISIL Explained’, Al Jazeera, June 20, 2017, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/06/rise-fall-isil-explained-170607085701484.html.
- 29.
Staff Writer, ‘Profile: Syria’s Al-Nusra Front’, BBC News, April 10, 2013, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18048033.
- 30.
Bruce Hoffman, ‘Al Qaeda’s Resurrection’, Council on Foreign Relations, March 6, 2016, https://www.cfr.org/expert-brief/al-qaedas-resurrection.
- 31.
Charles Lister, ‘In Syria We Are Getting Counter-Terrorism All Wrong’, MEI, February 3, 2020, https://www.mei.edu/publications/syria-were-getting-counter-terrorism-all-wrong.
- 32.
DPA, ‘Blast Rocks Hayat Tahrir al-Sham Headquarters in Syria’s Idlib’, Daily Sabah, January 18, 2019, https://www.dailysabah.com/syrian-crisis/2019/01/18/blast-rocks-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-headquarters-in-syrias-idlib.
- 33.
James Phillips and Austin Avery, ‘This little-Known Terror Group Poses a Greater Threat Than ISIS in Syria’, The Heritage Foundation, December 3, 2018, https://www.heritage.org/middle-east/commentary/little-known-terror-group-poses-greater-threat-isis-syria.
- 34.
Nur Ozkan Erbay, ‘Turkey, Russia Cooperation Over Idlib Continues Amid Worrying Regional Developments’, Daily Sabah, January 13, 2019, https://www.dailysabah.com/diplomacy/2019/01/14/turkey-russia-cooperation-over-idlib-continues-amid-worrying-regional-developments.
- 35.
Michael Hirsh, ‘The Problem with America’s Syria Policy Isn’t Trump. Its Syria’, Foreign Policy, January 8, 2019, https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/01/08/the-problem-with-americas-syria-policy-isnt-trump-its-syria/.
- 36.
Dimitriy Frolovskiy, ‘What Putin Really Wants in Syria’, Foreign Policy, February 1, 2019, https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/02/01/what-putin-really-wants-in-syria-russia-assad-strategy-kremlin/.
- 37.
Edward Wastnidge, ‘Iran & Syria: An Enduring Axis’, Middle East Policy Council, 2017, https://www.mepc.org/journal/iran-and-syria-enduring-axis.
- 38.
Hamidreza Azizi, ‘Iran Seeks Economic Benefits From Syria’, Atlantic Council, February 22, 2019, https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/iran-seeks-economic-benefits-from-syria.
- 39.
Anchal Vohra, ‘Europe Doesn’t Even Agree on Assad Anymore’, Foreign Policy, March 8, 2019, https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/03/08/europe-doesnt-even-agree-on-assad-anymore/.
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Abhyankar, R.M. (2020). International Efforts Towards Peace Agency and Results. In: Syria. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4562-7_6
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