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Foundation for Chinese Research on Grand Strategy

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China's Grand Strategy

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Abstract

In daily life, the term “strategy” is so commonly used even when the usage is inappropriate. This is also the case for the use of the term “grand strategy” in academic studies. However, the findings of China’s major research on grand strategy are far from abundant or satisfactory. To some extent, grand strategy research is a rather untapped territory in China.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Guiguzi: Assessing the World’s Situation.

  2. 2.

    B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy: The Indirect Approach, London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1967, p. 336.

  3. 3.

    Niu Xianzhong, Strategic Research, Nanning: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2003, p. 1; Xu Jia, Research on American Strategic Thinking, Beijing: Military Science Publishing House, 2003, p. 4.

  4. 4.

    Ci Yuan, Beijing: Commercial Press, 1980, p. 1193.

  5. 5.

    Feng Zhijun et al., Strategic Research and China’s Development, Beijing: Party School of the Central Committee of CPC Press, 2002, p. 3.

  6. 6.

    Niu Xianzhong, Sun Tzu and His Strategic Thoughts, Nanning: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2003, p. 24.

  7. 7.

    John Collins, Grand Strategy, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1973, p. xx.

  8. 8.

    Martin von Creveld, The Transformation of War, New York: Free Press, 1991, pp. 95–96.

  9. 9.

    Please refer to Li Shaojun, “On the Origin of Strategic Concepts”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 7, 2002, pp. 4–10; Niu Xianzhong, Strategic Research; Zhou Piqi, “National Grand Strategy: Concepts and Principles”, Contemporary International Relations, Issue 7, 2003, pp. 56–61; etc.

  10. 10.

    Niu Xianzhong, A New Discussion on Chinese Strategic Thinking, Taipei: Rye Field Publishing Co., 2003, p. 5.

  11. 11.

    Niu Xianzhong, The History of Western Strategic Thinking, Nanning: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2003, p. 4.

  12. 12.

    Jomini, The Art of War, Beijing: People’s Liberation Army Publishing House, 1986, pp. 87, 346.

  13. 13.

    Carl von Clausewitz, On War, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1978, p. 175.

  14. 14.

    Ibid., p. 103.

  15. 15.

    B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy: The Indirect Approach, p. 335.

  16. 16.

    The Art of War: Attack by Stratagem.

  17. 17.

    Ci Hai, Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House, 1999, p. 3833.

  18. 18.

    Wang Wenrong, ed., Science of Strategy, Beijing: PLA National Defense University Press, 1999, p. 18.

  19. 19.

    Academy of Military Sciences PLA China, The Science of Military Strategy, Beijing: Military Science Publishing House, 1987, p. 1.

  20. 20.

    Niu Xianzhong, The History of Western Strategic Thinking, pp. 8–9.

  21. 21.

    Wu Chunqiu, On Grand Strategy and the History of World Wars, Beijing: People’s Liberation Army Publishing House, 2002, p. 29.

  22. 22.

    B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy: The Indirect Approach, p. 322.

  23. 23.

    B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy: The Indirect Approach, pp. 335–370; Zhang Chun, Shi Yinhong, “Grand Strategy: Theoretical and Instance Analysis”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 7, 1999, pp. 71–75.

  24. 24.

    Soviet Union Military Encyclopedia, Beijing: People’s Liberation Army Publishing House, 1982, p. 40.

  25. 25.

    ITO Ken’ichi, Nation and Strategy, Beijing: Military Science Publishing House, 1988, p. 12.

  26. 26.

    Robert J. Art, A Grand Strategy for America, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003, pp. 1–2.

  27. 27.

    Avery Goldstein, “The Diplomatic Face of China's Grand Strategy: A Rising Power's Emerging Choice”,The China Quarterly, 2001, pp. 835–864.

  28. 28.

    John Collins, Grand Strategy, p. xx.

  29. 29.

    Richard Rosecrance and Arthur A. Stein, “Beyond Realism: The Study of Grand Strategy”, in Richard Rosecrance and Arthur A. Stein, eds., The Domestic Bases of Grand Strategy, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993, p. 3.

  30. 30.

    Alastair Iain Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, p. 37.

  31. 31.

    United States Military Academy, Military Strategy, Beijing: Military Science Publishing House, 1986, p. 60.

  32. 32.

    Alastair Iain Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History, p. 37.

  33. 33.

    Wu Chunqiu, On Grand Strategy and the History of World Wars, p. 12.

  34. 34.

    Zhou Jianming thinks that because China has not yet achieved reunification, the reunification strategy should be integrated with national development and security strategies, becoming an important part of grand strategy. Please refer to Zhou Jianming, Wang Hailiang, “National Grand Strategy: National Security Strategy and National Interests”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 4, 2000, pp. 21–26.

  35. 35.

    Ye Zicheng, The Grand Strategy of China: China's Major Issues and Strategic Choices for Becoming a World Power, Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2003, p. 2.

  36. 36.

    The Art of War: Laying Plans.

  37. 37.

    Guiguzi: Chapter Seven—The Art of Conjecture.

  38. 38.

    Yuan Ming, “Public Opinion on Cultivating the Elite on International Studies”, International Economic Review, Issue 1–2, 2002, pp. 14–16.

  39. 39.

    Paul Kennedy, “The First World War and the International Power System”, International Security, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1984, pp. 7–40.

  40. 40.

    Richard Rosecrance and Arthur A. Stein, “Beyond Realism: The Study of Grand Strategy”, p. 4.

  41. 41.

    Ibid., pp. 13–21.

  42. 42.

    The Art of War: Attack by Fire.

  43. 43.

    Xu Zhaoren, “Big Strategy is the Braking Force of the Historical Destiny of the Qing Dynasty”, Journal of Renmin University of China, Issue 3, 2002, pp. 117–123.

  44. 44.

    B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy: The Indirect Approach, pp. 335–336.

  45. 45.

    Wu Chunqiu, On Grand Strategy and the History of World Wars, pp. 23–24.

  46. 46.

    Paul Kennedy, Grand Strategies in War and Peace, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992, p. 4.

  47. 47.

    Li Jingzhi, et al., The Study of International Strategy, Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 2003, p. 10.

  48. 48.

    Peter Calvocoressi, “Arnold Toynbee: A Memorial Lecture”, International Affairs, January 1976, p. 2.

  49. 49.

    Hew Strachan, European Armies and the Conduct of War, London: George Allen & Win, 1983, p. 1.

  50. 50.

    Niu Xianzhong, Sun Tzu and His Strategic Thoughts—the “Introduction”, p. 17.

  51. 51.

    John Baylis, et al., Contemporary Strategy: Theories and Concepts, Vol. 1, London: Groom Helm, 1987, p. 55.

  52. 52.

    E. M. Sait, Political Institutions: A Preface, New York: D. Appleton Century, 1938, p. 49.

  53. 53.

    Yu Rubo, Grand thinking: An Interpretation of China’s Ancient Strategies, Beijing: Military Science Publishing House, 2001, p. 273.

  54. 54.

    Niu Xianzhong, Strategic Research, p. 55.

  55. 55.

    Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, “Domestic Politics and International Relations”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 8, 2001, pp. 64–67.

  56. 56.

    Michael D. Swaine and Ashley J. Tellis, Interpreting China's Grand Strategy: Past, Present, and Future, Ithaca: RAND, 2000, pp. 7–8.

  57. 57.

    Major works that study China’s grand strategy: Zhang Shu Guang, Deterrence and Strategic Culture: Chinese-America Confrontations, 1949–1958, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992; Alastair Iain Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History, Princeton: Princeton University Press; Michael D. Swaine and Ashley J. Tellis, Interpreting China's Grand Strategy: Past, Present, and Future, Ithaca: RAND, 2000; Hu Angang, The Grand Strategy of China, Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Publishing House, 2003; Ye Zicheng: The Grand Strategy of China: China's Major Issues and Strategic Choices for Becoming a World Power, Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2003; Avery Goldstein, China's Grand Strategy and International Security, Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 2008; Chung-in Moon, Grand Strategies of China’s Rising—In-depth Dialogue with Leading Chinese Intellectuals, Beijing: World Affairs Press, 2011; Xue Litai, China’s Grand Strategy for Engaging an Uncertain World, Beijing: The Oriental Press, 2014; C. Raja Mohan, Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Indo-Pacific, Beijing: China Democracy and Legal System Publishing House, 2014; Hu Angang, Yan Yilong, Zhou Shaojie, et al., China’s Grand Strategy of the “13th Five-Year Plan”, Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Publishing House, 2015; and so on. Major academic theses about China’s grand strategy: Shi Yinhong, “The Century Law of International Politics and Its Enlightenment to China”, Strategy and Management, Issue 2, 1995, pp. 1–3; Shi Yinhong, “To Have a Long Vision— Diplomatic Philosophy on External Affairs and Secular Grand Strategy for China in the Early 21st Century”, Journal of Harbin Institute of Technology (Social Sciences Edition), Issue 2, 2001, pp. 13–20; Zhou Jianming & Wang Hailiang, “National Grand Strategy: National Security Strategy and National Interests”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 4, 2000, pp. 21–26; Tang Shiping, “Ideal Security Environment and China's Grand Strategy in the New Century”, Strategy and Management, Issue 6, 2000, pp. 42–49; Tang Shiping: “Re-discussion on China's Grand Strategy”, Strategy and Management, Issue 4, 2001, pp. 29–37; Men Honghua, “The Expansion of China's National Strategic Interests”, Strategy and Management, Issue 2, 2003, pp. 83–89; Avery Goldstein, “The Diplomatic Face of China's Grand Strategy: A Rising Power's Emerging Choice”, The China Quarterly, 2001, pp. 835–864; Avery Goldstein, “An Emerging China's Emerging Grand Strategy: A Neo-Bismarckian Turn?”, in G. John Ikenberry and Michael Mastanduno, eds., International Relations Theory and the Asia Pacific, New York: Columbia University Press, 2003, pp. 57–106; Men Honghua, “How to Conduct Grand Strategy Researches and What Makes them Important”, The Journal of International Studies, Issue 4, 2004, pp. 33–45; Zhang Lu & Wang Yinghui, “On the Peacefulness of Contemporary China's Grand Strategic Choices: A Consideration Based on Strategic Culture”, Pacific Journal, Issue 6, 2005, pp. 22–30; Cai Tuo, “A Discussion on China's Grand Strategy”, International Review, Issue 2, 2006, pp. 1–7; Qin Yaqing et al., “China's Grand Strategy: Problems and Ideas”, Academics, Issue 2, 2006, pp. 7–25; Yaakov Berger, “China's Grand Strategy in the Eyes of Chinese and American Scholars”, Foreign Theoretical Trends, Issue 2, 2007, pp. 21–25; Song Dexing, “The Specific Difficulties in the Making of Grand Strategy in the Post-Cold War Era—A Concurrent Discussion on the Making of China's Grand Strategy”, Foreign Affairs Review, Issue 6, 2008, pp. 19–26; Yuan Peng, “Major Strategic Mistakes China's Diplomacy Must Beware Of”, Contemporary International Relations, Issue 11, 2010, pp. 12–14; Yuan Peng, “Thinking about the Great Era and the Grand Strategy—On the Ten Relationships Needed by China's Diplomacy in the New Era”, Contemporary World and Socialism, Issue 4, 2012, pp. 11–15; Yu Zhengliang, “Thinking on China's Big Strategy”, Studies on Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping Theories, Issue 5, 2012, pp. 95–101; Song Dexing, “Strategic Realism—An Option for China's Grand Strategy”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 9, 2012, pp. 4–17; Hu Angang & Yan Yilong, “China's Grand Strategy: Coordinating Two Overall Situations and Conditions Required for Success”, Journal of Chinese Academy of Governance, Issue 2, 2013, pp. 11–15; Zhong Feiteng, “Development-Based Security: A Grand Strategy of China”, Foreign Affairs Review, Issue 6, 2013, pp. 16–34; Hu Angang, “The Great Strategic Plan of the Party Central Committee: ‘Three Comprehensives’ and ‘Three Chinese Features’”, Social Sciences in Chinese Higher Education Institutions, Issue 6, 2014, pp. 6–8; Men Honghua, “Starting a New Era of Comprehensively Deepening Reform and Expanding Opening-up in China—On the Trend of China's Grand Strategy in the Next Decade”, Study & Exploration, Issue 8, 2015, pp. 40–44.

  58. 58.

    Chinese scholars’ analysis of the concept and theories of grand strategy: Zhang Chun & Shi Yinhong, “Grand Strategy—Theory and Case Analysis”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 7, 1999, pp. 71–75; Shi Yinhong & Wei Changchun, “Paul Kennedy's Strategic Thinking”, The Chinese Journal of American Studies, Issue 2, 2001, pp. 36–53; Li Shaojun, “On the Origin of Strategic Concepts”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 7, 2002, pp. 4–10; Wei Changchun & Li Yuncheng, “Paul Kennedy's Strategic Thinking: Lessons and Implications for China to Learn from”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 7, 2002, pp. 56–59; Zhou Piqi, “National Grand Strategy: Concepts and Principles”, Contemporary International Relations, Issue 7, 2003, pp. 56–61; etc. Analysis of America’s grand strategy: Men Honghua, “The Controversy of American Grand Strategy after the Cold War and Its Implications”, Pacific Journal, Issue 2, 2003, pp. 18–26; Hu Angang & Men Honghua, Decoding U.S. Grand Strategy, Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Publishing House, 2003; Xu Jia, Research on American Strategic Thinking, Beijing: Military Science Publishing House, 2003; Robert Art: A Grand Strategy for America, Peking University Press, 2005; Zhou Piqi, Legitimacy and Grand Strategy: America’s Hegemonic Maintenance in NATO System, Peking University Press, 2005; Christopher Layne, The Peace of Illusions: American Grand Strategy from 1940 to the Present, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009; Niu Jun, The Curse of Strategy: The American Grand Strategy in the Cold War Period, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009; Wu Zhengyu, Logic of Hegemony: Geopolitics and Post-War American Strategy, Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 2010; etc. Studies of Japan’s grand strategy: Song Dexing & Yin Shi, “Geographical Attributes, Cultural Characteristics, and the Making of a Japanese Grand Strategy: Analysis of Geography and Culture”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 8, 2007, pp. 56–64; Li Zhuo, “The Evolution Model of Japan's Grand Strategy: Reading Samuel's Securing Japan: Tokyo's Grand Strategy and the Future of East Asia”, The Journal of International Studies, Issue 2, 2010, pp. 168–180; Richard J. Samuels, Securing Japan: Tokyo's Grand Strategy and the Future of East Asia, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2010; Wu Huaizhong, “A Brief Analysis of Japan's Strategy for China—Focusing on ‘Engagement’ and ‘Hedging’”, Japanese Studies, 2012, Issue 5, pp. 65–80; Studies of Germany’s grand strategy: Xu Qiyu, Fragile Rise: Grand Strategy and the Fate of Imperial Germany, Beijing: Xinhua Publishing House, 2014. It is worth noting that in recent years there have been several batches of large-scale strategic research series. Professor Shi Yinhong has organized and translated a number of classic strategic works in the World Affairs Press, including John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security, New York: Oxford University Press, 1982; Peter Paret and Gordon A. Craig, eds., Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986; Paul Kennedy, ed., Grand Strategies in War and Peace, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992; Williamson Murray, Alvin Bernstein and MacGregor Knox, eds., The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994. The "Grand Strategy Research Series" of Peking University Press, organized by Men Honghua, which is the most systematic series of large-scale strategic researches to date, and which has had a major impact on the academic world.

  59. 59.

    Chen Jinsong, “Outstanding Ancient Thought of ‘Grand Strategy’”, Journal of Shanghai Second Polytechnic University, Issue 2, 1994, pp. 68–74; Ye Zicheng & Pang Xun, “The School of Diplomatic Thought in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period in China and Its Comparison with the West”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 12, 2001, pp. 24–29; Xu Zhaoren, “Big Strategy is the Braking Force of the Historical Destiny of the Qing Dynasty”, Journal of Renmin University of China, Issue 3, 2002, pp. 117–123; Mei Ran, “Equilibrium Politics in the Warring States Period”, The Journal of International Studies, Issue 3, 2002, pp. 118–124; Li Jijun, On Strategy, People's Liberation Army Publishing House, 2002; Hong Bing, Analysis of China's Strategic Principles, Beijing: Military Science Publishing House, 2002; Gong Yuzhen, Analysis of China's Strategic Culture, Beijing: Military Science Publishing House, 2002; Wu Chunqiu, On Grand Strategy and the History of World Wars, Beijing: People's Liberation Army Publishing House, 2002; Niu Xianzhong: A New Discussion on Chinese Strategic Thinking, Taipei: Rye Field Publishing Co., 2003; Niu Xianzhong, Sun Tzu and His Strategic Thoughts, Nanning: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2003; Ye Zicheng, Chinese Diplomatic Thoughts during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Hong Kong Press for Social Sciences Ltd., 2003; Yan Xuetong & Xu Jin, Pre-Qin Chinese Thoughts on Foreign Relations, Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2008; Ye Zicheng, The Rise of China—The Great History of the 500 Years of the China System, Beijing: People's Publishing House, 2013; Ye Zicheng & Long Quanlin, Huaxiaism—The Great Wisdom of the Chinese System for 500 Years, Beijing: People's Publishing House, 2013; Shi Yinhong, Rises and Falls: Interpretation of the Code of the "Book of Han", Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 2015; Tang Shiping & Wang Kai, Strategic Behaviors in History: A Course, Peking University Press, 2015; etc.

  60. 60.

    Niu Xianzhong translated into Chinese works of Western strategic thinkers such as Jomini, Clausewitz, Liddell Hart, Fuller, and Beaufre, and wrote The History of Western Strategic Thinking and The History of China’s Strategic Thinking, Sun Tzu and His Strategic Thoughts, History and Strategy, Introduction to Strategic Research, Strategic Prospects for the 21st Century, Strategists: Thoughts and Works, A New Discussion on Chinese Strategic Thinking, Strategic Research, The Review and Reflection of the Second World War. In recent years, many of his works have been introduced to the mainland, receiving much attention in the strategic research community in Chinese mainland.

  61. 61.

    Wu Chunqiu, On Grand Strategy and the History of World Wars, pp. 96–140.

  62. 62.

    Ye Zicheng, Chinese Diplomatic Thoughts during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Hong Kong Press for Social Sciences Ltd., 2003; Ye Zicheng, “The Origin of Chinese Diplomacy—On the Nature of the Zhou Royal Family and the Vassal States in the Spring and Autumn Period”, The Journal of International Studies, Issue 1, 2005, pp. 9–22; Ye Zicheng & Wang Rihua, “The School of Diplomatic Thought in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period”, Quarterly Journal of International Politics, Issue 2, 2006, pp. 113–132; Ye Zicheng, “The Outlook of Righteousness and Benefit in Chinese Traditional Culture and China's Diplomacy”, The Journal of International Studies, Issue 3, 2007, pp. 24–29; Li Hu, “The Principle of Reciprocity in the Diplomatic Activities of Zhou Dynasty”, Journal of Literature, History and Philosophy, Issue 3, 2009, pp. 124–132; Li Hu, “Han Dynasty’s Diplomacy and ‘Soft Power’", Journal of Literature, History and Philosophy, Issue 4, 2012, pp. 60–71; Li Hu, “The Types and Characteristics of the Diplomatic Correspondence in Han Dynasty”, Collected Papers of History Studies, Issue 4, 2013, pp. 28–36; Ye Zicheng, The Rise of China—The Great History of the 500 Years of the China System, Beijing: People's Publishing House, 2013; Ye Zicheng & Long Quanlin, Huaxiaism—The Great Wisdom of the Chinese System for 500 Years, Beijing: People's Publishing House, 2013. Shi Yinhong has paid much attention to traditional strategies in recent years. Please refer to Shi Yinhong, Rises and Falls, Interpretation of the Code of the "Book of Han", Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 2015.

  63. 63.

    Alastair Iain Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History, pp. 248–266.

  64. 64.

    Michael D. Swaine and Ashley J. Tellis, Interpreting China's Grand Strategy: Past, Present, and Future, pp. 21–95.

  65. 65.

    Zheng Bijian, Collection of Zheng Bijian's Essays, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2005, pp. 167–168.

  66. 66.

    Zheng Bijian, “The 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China and China's New Path of Peaceful Rise—Speech at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in the United States (November 9, 2002)”, in Zheng Bijian, The Course of Thinking—The Origin, Basis, Connotation and Prospects of China's Peaceful Development Path, Beijing: Party School of the Central Committee of CPC Press, 2006, p. 129.

  67. 67.

    Ibid., p. 146.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., p. 152 and pp. 156–159.

  69. 69.

    Zheng Bijian, “Several Thoughts on the Problems of China Strategy, Converging Points of Common Interests and Community of Common Interests—Prospects on the Second Ten Years’ Development and Foreign Relations in the 21st Century in China”, Studies on Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping Theories, Issue 1, 2012, pp. 1–4.

  70. 70.

    Shi Yinhong, "Reflections on the Current Economic Strategy of China", International Economic Review, Issue 6, 2003, pp. 50–51.

  71. 71.

    See Shi Yinhong, “The Century Law of International Politics and Its Enlightenment to China”, pp. 1–3; Shi Yinhong, “To Have a Long Vision—Diplomatic Philosophy on External Affairs and Secular Grand Strategy for China in the early 21st Century”, pp. 13–20. The following theoretical analyses of the grand strategy made by Shi Yinhong are also worthy of attention. See Shi Yinhong, "National Grand Strategy Theory and China's Grand Strategy Practice", Contemporary International Relations, Issue 3, 2004, pp. 36–42; Shi Yinhong: "Strategic History Investigation and Grand Strategy Theory", Journal of Historical Science, Issue 6, 2005, pp. 5–10; Shi Yinhong: "The Outline of National Grand Strategy Theory", International Review, Issue 5, 2007, pp. 15–21; Shi Yinhong: "Strategic Concepts and Basic Issues of Grand Strategy", The Journal of International Studies, Issue 4, 2007, pp. 18–21; Shi Yinhong and Yu Haifeng: "The Ends and Fundamental Principles of Grand Strategy", Journal of Renmin University of China, Issue 5, 2008, pp. 110–116.

  72. 72.

    Ye Zicheng, The Grand Strategy of China: Main Issues and Strategic Choices after China’s Rise as a World Power, p. 3 of the “Foreword”, pp. 166–239 and pp. 434–435.

  73. 73.

    Hu Angang, Ten Lectures on Chinese Path, Beijing: Party Building Books Publishing House, 2015, p. 9.

  74. 74.

    Hu Angang, Men Honghua, "A Comparison of Tangible Strategic Resources among China, the US, India, Japan and Russia—Commenting on China’s Grand Strategy to Make It Richer and Stronger", Strategy and Management, Issue 2, 2002, pp. 26–41.

  75. 75.

    Hu Angang, Super China, Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Publishing House, 2015, pp. 17–18.

  76. 76.

    Avery Goldstein, “Great Expectations: Interpreting China's Arrival”, International Security, Winter 1997/1998, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 36–73; “The Diplomatic Face of China's Grand Strategy: A Rising Power's Emerging Choice”, The China Quarterly, 2001, pp. 835–864; “First Things First: The Pressing Danger of Crisis Instability in U.S.-China Relations”, International Security, Vol. 37, No. 4, Spring 2013, pp. 49–89.

  77. 77.

    Avery Goldstein, “The Diplomatic Face of China's Grand Strategy: A Rising Power's Emerging Choice”, pp. 835–864.

  78. 78.

    Avery Goldstein, “An Emerging China's Emerging Grand Strategy: A Neo-Bismarckian Turn?”, in G. John Ikenberry and Michael Mastanduno, eds., International Relations Theory and the Asia Pacific, pp. 57–106.

  79. 79.

    Avery Goldstein, “The Evolution of China’s Security Challenges and Grand Strategy”, Journal of International Security Studies, Issue 1, 2015, pp. 14–31.

  80. 80.

    Michael D. Swaine and Ashley J. Tellis, Interpreting China's Grand Strategy: Past, Present, and Future, Ithaca: RAND, 2000, pp. 7–8.

  81. 81.

    Michael D. Swaine, “Does China Have a Grand Strategy?” (unpublished paper).

  82. 82.

    Michael D. Swaine and Ashley J. Tellis, Interpreting China's Grand Strategy: Past, Present, and Future; Thomas M. Kane, Chinese Grand Strategy and Maritime Power, London: Frank Cass Publishers, 2002, pp. 9–11.

  83. 83.

    Records of the Grand Historian: Biographic Sketches of Emperor Gaozu.

  84. 84.

    The Old Book of Tang: Biography 34, Vol. 84.

  85. 85.

    Andre Beaufre, 1940: The Fall of France, Casselll, 1967, p. XIV. Cited in Niu Xianzhong, Strategic Research, pp. 107–108.

  86. 86.

    Historical Records of the Five Dynasties: Preface to Biographies of Court Musicians and Actors.

  87. 87.

    The Book of Han: Biography of Sima Xiangru.

  88. 88.

    Niu Xianzhong, Strategic Research, p. 96.

  89. 89.

    Six Secret Strategic Teachings: Shun Qi says, “Only when a person has the world in his mind can he tolerate anything in the world”.

  90. 90.

    The study of China’s Grand Strategy falls behind the rise of China, for which Chinese scholars are to blame. Chen Yinke once criticized China’s strategic thinking from the point of culture that ancient Chinese were good at politics and ethics and preferred the practical knowledge over the theory; they could cultivate themselves, regulate the families and govern the state but they failed to think further and profoundly because they focused too much on details. See Wu Xuezhao, Wu Mi and Chen Yinke, Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 1992. p. 9.

  91. 91.

    Anthologies of Marx and Engels. Vol. 4, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1995, pp. 284.

  92. 92.

    The author selects national power, international institutions and strategic ideas as the basic variables as well as the core variables of the mainstream paradigms of international relations theory including new realism, liberal institutionalism and constructivism. Focusing on the values of strength, institution and ideas in theoretical explanation and practical application, the author makes the selections based on his research and understanding of the three paradigms mentioned above, his knowledge of the mutual-learning and integration rules of the three, and his study of Paul Kennedy’s woks. Paul Kennedy points out that “Due to the extension of the connotation of the grand strategy concept, we have to take into account a series of factors that were once missed out by the traditional military history: (1) National resources. That is, to make a trade-off between the means and the end through the utilization and management of natural resources. (2) Diplomacy. That is, to elevate the nation’s status in the world by making alliances with neutral countries, winning their support and reducing hostile countries. (3) The morale and political culture of nation’s people. One can never underestimate their importance.” His view is quite similar to the author’s. The selection of the basic variables also has its source from Joseph Nye’s “soft power” theory. For the lay-out of the book, chapter “Evaluation of National Power” focuses on the analysis of China’s hard power while chapters “Optimization of Strategic Ideas” and “Participation in International Institutions” give more emphasis on the soft power. These three chapters examine China's material strength, spiritual strength and opening up process, the basic elements of choosing a grand strategy in a globalized world. See: Paul Kennedy, ed., Grand Strategies in War and Peace, pp. 4–5; Joseph Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, New York: Basic Books, 1990; Joseph Nye, The Paradox of American Power: Why the World's Only Superpower Can't Go It Alone, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002; Men Honghua, “The Mutual Enlightenment and Integration of the Theoretical Paradigm of International Relations”, World Economics and Politics, Issue 5, 2003, pp. 42–43; Men Honghua, “A Research Program for Constructing Neoliberal Institutionalism—An Interpretation of ‘Power and Interdependence’”, The Chinese Journal of American Studies, Issue 4, 2002, pp. 111–122; Men Honghua, “Robert O. Keohane: The Classic Master of Interpretation and Development of World Political Theory”, in Keohane, Men Honghua, ed., Liberalism, Power and Governance in a Locally Globalized World, Peking University Press, 2004, "Preface" etc.

  93. 93.

    The usage of national power refers to imposing the single power or the overall national strength on the country’s opponents, restricting them or enforcing them to change or relinquish the plans or actions damaging the country’s interests, so as to safeguard or gain strategic interests for itself.

  94. 94.

    Fuller points out, “The first duty of the grand strategist is to appreciate the commercial and financial position of his country; to discover what its resources and liabilities are. Secondly, he must understand the moral characteristics of his countrymen, their history, peculiarities, social customs and systems of government.” See: J. F. C. Fuller, The Reformation of War, London: Hutchinson & Co., 1932, pp. 218–220.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Tongji University, Shanghai, China

    Honghua Men

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  1. Honghua Men
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Correspondence to Honghua Men .

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Men, H. (2020). Foundation for Chinese Research on Grand Strategy. In: China's Grand Strategy. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4257-2_1

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