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History of Representative System

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A Comparative Study of Representative Systems

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Abstract

The history of human democracy, in terms of its forms, is in fact a history of alternative development of direct and indirect democracy. Lenin once pointed out that “ever since the rudiments of democracy first appeared in antiquity, its forms notably changed over the centuries as one ruling class replaced another.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Liening xuanji [Lenin Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.699. cf. Lenin, V. (1919) Speech at the Opening Session of the First Congress of the Communist International delivered on March 2.

  2. 2.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, pp.617–618. cf. Engles, F. (1880) Socialism: Utopian and Scientific.

  3. 3.

    Marx holds that the development of human society will experience three forms, respectively, the initial social form on the basis of the dependence on people, the second major form on the basis of the dependence on things, the third major form with the association of free people as the main feature. Different social forms inevitably require different political forms corresponding to them.

  4. 4.

    Huang, D. Q. (ed.) (1993) Shehui zhuyi minzhu: Kuashiji de chensi [Socialist Democracy: A millennium reflection], Beijing: China Renmin University Press, p.1.

  5. 5.

    Huang, D. Q. (ed.) (1993) Shehui zhuyi minzhu: Kuashiji de chensi [Socialist Democracy: A millennium reflection], Beijing: China Renmin University Press, p.12.

  6. 6.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.4, p.103. cf. Engels, F. (1884) Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State.

  7. 7.

    Morgan, L. (1992) Gudai shehui (I) [Ancient Society (I)], trans. Yang D. C., Ma Y. & Ma J., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.82. cf. Morgan, L. (1877/1985) Ancient Society, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company Co-operative, p.85.

  8. 8.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.4, p.95. cf. Engels, F. (1884) Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State.

  9. 9.

    Morgan, L. (1992) Gudai shehui (I) [Ancient Society (I)], trans. Yang D. C., Ma Y. & Ma J., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.113. cf. Morgan, L. (1877/1985) Ancient Society, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company Co-operative, p.118.

  10. 10.

    Morgan, L. (1992) Gudai shehui (I) [Ancient Society (I)], trans. Yang D. C., Ma Y. & Ma J., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.116. cf. Morgan, L. (1877/1985) Ancient Society, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company Co-operative, p.121.

  11. 11.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.4, p.164. cf. Engles, F. (1884) Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State.

  12. 12.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.4, pp.145–146. cf. Engles, F. (1884) Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State.

  13. 13.

    Morgan, L. (1992) Gudai shehui (I) [Ancient Society (I)], trans. Yang D. C., Ma Y. & Ma J., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.116. cf. Morgan, L. (1877/1985) Ancient Society, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company Co-operative, p.122.

  14. 14.

    Russell, B. (1991) Quanli lun [On Power], trans. Wu Y. S., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.138. cf. Russell, B. (1938/2004). Power, New York: Routledge, p.157.

  15. 15.

    Godwin, W. (1991) Zhengzhi zhengyi lun [On Political Justice], trans. He M. L, Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.393. cf. Godwin, W. (1793/1976) Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and Its Influence on Morals and Happiness, Penguin Classics, p.178.

  16. 16.

    He, X. M. (1991) Gudian minzhu zhengti lun [On Classic Democratic Regimes], Lanzhou: Lanzhou University Press, p.29.

  17. 17.

    Morgan, L. (1992) Gudai shehui (II) [Ancient Society (II)], trans. Yang D. C., Ma Y. & Ma J., Beijing: The Commercial Press, pp.337–338. cf. Morgan, L. (1877/1985) Ancient Society, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company Co-operative, p.350.

  18. 18.

    Morgan, L. (1992) Gudai shehui (II) [Ancient Society (II)], trans. Yang D. C., Ma Y. & Ma J., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.338. cf. Morgan, L. (1877/1985) Ancient Society, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company Co-operative, p.351.

  19. 19.

    Morgan, L. (1992) Gudai shehui (II) [Ancient Society (II)], trans. Yang D. C., Ma Y. & Ma J., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.338. cf. Morgan, L. (1877/1985) Ancient Society, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company Co-operative, p.351.

  20. 20.

    Liening xuanji [Lenin Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.159. cf. Lenin, V. (1917) The State and Revolution.

  21. 21.

    Ri, Z. (ed.) (1989) Gudai chengbangshi yanjiu [A Study of History of Ancient Polis], Beijing: People’s Publishing House, p.37.

  22. 22.

    In the Roman Republic there appeared successively four kinds of people’s assemblies, namely, the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, the Comitia Plebis Tributa or Concilium Plebis, and the Comitia Populi Tributa. Although the Comitia Centuriata was the nominally supreme power body, the senate was composed of elders of the gens and former consuls played a decisive role. For this, the then Roman Republic was in fact the dictatorship of aristocratic slaveholders. Then this book takes democracy in Athens as the typical example. If readers want to know more about the people’s assembly in ancient Rome, you can refer to Wang, N. X. (1994) ‘Guluoma renmin dahui ruogan wenti bianxi’ [Analysis on Comitia in Ancient Rome] in the first issue of Qiu Shi [Seeking Truth].

  23. 23.

    Morgan, L. (1992) Gudai shehui (II) [Ancient Society (II)], trans. Yang D. C., Ma Y. & Ma J., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p. 332. cf. Morgan, L. (1877/1985) Ancient Society, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company Co-operative, p.351.

  24. 24.

    Demositini [Demosthenes] (XXIV), p.149.

  25. 25.

    Herodotus (1959). Lishi (III) [History (III)], trans. Wang, Y. Z., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.82.

  26. 26.

    Aristotle (1983). Zhengzhixue [The Politics], trans. Wu S. P., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.312.

  27. 27.

    Liening quanji [Lenin’s collected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.4, p.33. cf. Lenin, V. (1919) The State: lecture delivered at the Sverdlov University on July 11, 1919.

  28. 28.

    Makesi Engesi quanji [Marx and Engels Collected Works] (1965), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.21, p.452.

  29. 29.

    Miller, D. and Bogdanor, V. (eds) (1992) The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Science, New York: Wiley-Blackwell, p.188.

  30. 30.

    Paine, T. (1982) Panen xuanji [Selected Works of Thomas Paine], trans. Ma Q. H., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.246. cf. Paine, T. (2005) Common Sense and Other Writings, London and New York: Barnes & Noble Books, p.218.

  31. 31.

    Lipset, S. (1993) Zhengzhi ren [Political Man], trans. Liu G. M. & Nie R., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.9. cf. Lipset, S. (1960) Political Man: The social bases of politics, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., p.22.

  32. 32.

    Rong, J. et al. (1988) Minzhu lun [On Democracy], Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, p.79–86.

  33. 33.

    Makesi Engesi quanji [Marx and Engels Collected Works] (1965), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.1, p.344. cf. Marx, K. (1843) Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right.

  34. 34.

    Makesi Engesi quanji [Marx and Engels Collected Works] (1965), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.1, p.327. cf. Marx, K. (1843) Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right.

  35. 35.

    Cf. Jin, G. T. et al. (1985) Xifang shehui jiegou de yanbian [Evolution of Western Social Structure], Chengdu: Sichuan People’s Publishing House, pp.169–226.

  36. 36.

    Jin, G. T. et al. (1985) Xifang shehui jiegou de yanbian [Evolution of Western Social Structure], Chengdu: Sichuan People’s Publishing House, pp.193–194.

  37. 37.

    Mastellone, S. (1992) Ouzhou zhengzhi sixiang shi: Cong shiwu shiji dao ershi shiji [History of European Political Thoughts: From 15th Century to 20th Century], trans. Huang, H. G., Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, p.186.

  38. 38.

    Rong, J. et al. (1988) Minzhu lun [On Democracy], Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, p.88.

  39. 39.

    Cao, P. L. et al. (1993) Bijiao zhengfu tizhi [A Comparison of Government System], Shanghai: Fudan University Press, pp.1–2.

  40. 40.

    Mill, J. (1982) Daiyizhi zhengfu [The Representative Government], trans. Wang X., Beijing: The Commercial Press, p.43. cf. Mill, J. (1861/2008) Considerations on Representative Government, London: The Electric Book Company, p.56.

  41. 41.

    Of course, the parliament existed long ago as far as the pure sense of representative organs was concerned. For example, the Icelandic parliament established in 930 was one of the oldest parliaments in the world (cf. Dictionary of World Parliaments, p.279). Before the unification of Spain, the parliaments of the Kingdom of Aragon and the Kingdom of Castile were respectively established in 1071 and 1137 (ibid, p.423). However, these parliaments did not carry the feature of modern parliaments in essence. The first organ which could be described as a parliament appeared in 1188 under the reign of the Kingdom of Leon. In this organ, the king should promise to “follow the advice from his bishop, the nobility and solons”, “no matter in peace or war” (Antonio Marongiu, Medieval Parliaments, p.62). However, it was only a hierarchical conference without effect on the modernization.

  42. 42.

    William Stubbs, the originator of the constitutional history in Britain, believed that the parliament came into being in 1295; Sayles, a current expert in legal history, held that the parliament started from the mid-1200 s when the term appeared in official literatures of the Supreme Court; most Soviet and Chinese scholars argued that the parliament occurred in 1265 or 1295; Liu Xincheng thought that the parliament stemmed from the time of political reforms in the 1320 s. cf. Liu, X. C. (1991) ‘Zaiyi yingguo yihui de qiyuan’ [The Origin of British Parliament Revisited], Shijie lishi [World History], (3); see also Shen, H. et al. (1991) Yingguo yihui zhengzhishi [British Parliamentary and Political History], Nanjing: Nanjing University Press, pp.36–38.

  43. 43.

    Birch, A. H. (1971) Representation, London: Pall Mall Press Ltd., p.26.

  44. 44.

    Jiang, M. Y. (1988) Yingguoshi [The History of Britain], Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, p.59.

  45. 45.

    Cf. Shen, H. et al. (1991) Yingguo yihui zhengzhishi [British Parliamentary and Political History], Nanjing: Nanjing University Press, pp.3–4.

  46. 46.

    Spufford, P. (1967) Origins of the English Parliament, London, p.3.

  47. 47.

    Wang, R. T. (1983) ‘Luelun yingguo yihui de qiyuan’ [On Origins of the English Parliament], Shixue yuekan [Journal of Historical Science], (4).

  48. 48.

    Birch, A. (1971) Representation, London: Pall Mall Press Ltd., p.27.

  49. 49.

    Zhang, Z. L. (ed.) (1989) Faguo jianshi [A Concise History of France], Beijing: Peking University Press, p.62–63.

  50. 50.

    Mastellone, S. (1992) Ouzhou zhengzhi sixiang shi: Cong shiwu shiji dao ershi shiji [History of European Political Thoughts: From 15th Century to 20th Century], trans. Huang, H. G., Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, p.179.

  51. 51.

    Jin, G. T. et al. (1985) Xifang shehui jiegou de yanbian [Evolution of Western Social Structure], Chengdu: Sichuan People’s Publishing House, p.187.

  52. 52.

    Jiang, J. S. (1992) Meiguo guohuishi [The History of the United States Congress], Hainan: Hainan Publishing House, p.7.

  53. 53.

    In terms of parliamentary reforms, British was the most prominent. It mainly started with the capitalist democratization on political structures in the post-industrial revolution (cf. Shen, H. Yingguo yihui zhengzhishi [The History of British Parliament and Politics], Chapter 6). France and America also made adjustments to the parliamentary system many times (cf. Hong, B. Faguo zhengzhi zhidu bianqian [The Changes of the French Political System], Chapter 3–4; Jiang, J. S. Meiguo guohuishi [The History of the United States Congress], Chapter 14, etc.).

  54. 54.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.94. cf. Marx. K. (1871) The Civil War in France.

  55. 55.

    Liening xuanji [Lenin Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.151. cf. Lenin, V. (1917) The State and Revolution.

  56. 56.

    Makesi Engesi quanji [Marx and Engels Collected Works] (1965), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.1, p.687. cf. Engles, F. (1844) The Condition of England.

  57. 57.

    Liening xuanji [Lenin Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.150. cf. Lenin, V. (1917) The State and Revolution.

  58. 58.

    Makesi Engesi quanji [Marx and Engels Collected Works] (1957), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.2, p.647. cf. Engels, F. (1846) The Condition of Germany.

  59. 59.

    Liening quanji [Lenin Collected Works] (1959), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.9, p.36.

  60. 60.

    Liening quanji [Lenin Collected Works] (1956), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.29, p.442. cf. Lenin, V. (1919) The State: A lecture delivered at the Sverdlov University.

  61. 61.

    Liening quanji [Lenin Collected Works] (1956), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.29, p.442. cf. Lenin, V. (1919) The State: A lecture delivered at the Sverdlov University.

  62. 62.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.1, p.272. cf. Marx, K. and F. Engels (1848) Manifesto of the Communist Party.

  63. 63.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.314. cf. Marx, K. (1875) Critique of the Gotha Programme.

  64. 64.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol1, p.675. cf. Marx, K. (1852) The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte.

  65. 65.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.52. cf. Mark, K. (1871) The Civil War in France.

  66. 66.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.117. cf. Mark, K. (1871) The Civil War in France.

  67. 67.

    Liening xuanji [Lenin Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.151. cf. Lenin, V. (1917) The State and Revolution.

  68. 68.

    Liening xuanji [Lenin Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.152. cf. Lenin, V. (1917) The State and Revolution.

  69. 69.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.4, p.735. cf. Engels, F. (1894) ‘To Paul Lafargue at Le Perreux’.

  70. 70.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.55. cf. Marx, K. (1871) The Civil War in France.

  71. 71.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.12. cf. Engels, F. (1891) On the 20th Anniversary of the Paris Commune.

  72. 72.

    Lening quanji [Lenin Collected Works] (1959), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.26, p.314. cf. Lenin, V. (1917) Draft Decree on the Right of Recall.

  73. 73.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.55. cf. Marx, K. (1871) The Civil War in France.

  74. 74.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.55. cf. Marx, K. (1871) The Civil War in France.

  75. 75.

    Makesi Engesi xuanji [Marx and Engels Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.55. cf. Marx, K. (1871) The Civil War in France.

  76. 76.

    Liening quanji [Lenin Collected Works] (1956), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.28, p.409. cf. Lenin, V. (1919) Thesis and Report on Bourgeois Democracy and the Dictatorship of the Proletariat.

  77. 77.

    Liening quanji [Lenin Collected Works] (1958), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.27, p.171. cf. Lenin, V. (1919) Thesis and Report on Bourgeois Democracy and the Dictatorship of the Proletariat.

  78. 78.

    Liening quanji [Lenin Collected Works] (1958), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.10, p.213. cf. Lenin, V. (1905) Our Tasks and the Soviet of Workers’ Deputies.

  79. 79.

    Liening quanji [Lenin Collected Works] (1959), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.16, p.165.

  80. 80.

    Liening xuanji [Lenin Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, p.15. cf. Lenin, V. (1917) The Tasks of the Proletariat in the Present Revolution.

  81. 81.

    Liening xuanji [Lenin Selected Works] (1995), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.3, pp.308–309; Sidalin quanji [Stalin Collected Works] (1956), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, vol.6, pp.107–108. cf. Lenin, V. (1917) The Bolshevik Must Assume State Power?

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  1. School of Law, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China

    Yezhong Zhou

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Zhou, Y. (2024). History of Representative System. In: A Comparative Study of Representative Systems. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4186-5_2

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4186-5_2

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