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State Practices Towards National Space Legislation

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National Space Legislation for India

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Abstract

National space legislation constitutes an important source of “state practice”, i.e. how states behave in practice. In this chapter, a comparative analysis of national space legislations will provide an overview of the dispositions of the twenty selected jurisdictions. The objective of the study is to find out how these states have responded to their international obligations and to figure out the general contours of national space legislation. The comparative study is not intended to reflect upon every minutest details and specifics of the respective legislations but rather the comparative study is done on the following parameters: (a) scope and application of the legislation; (b) implementation of authorization and supervision principle that includes authorizing body, authorizing conditions and procedure and means of achieving continuing supervision; (c) implementation of the registration principle; (d) recourse against liability; (e) transfer of the space object and (f) protection of the environment. These parameters have been identified in the analysis of the various national space legislations and also recommended in various model laws. They ascertain a common minimum approach taken towards regulating space activities conducted by non-governmental entities. Some legislation regulates additional matters also. Any such distinction, which is relevant from the perspective of this study, will be discussed under the heading “other aspects”.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Basic Space Act No. 43/ 2008. Unofficial translation by Setusko Aoki in Space Law Basic Legal Documents, Eleven Publisher, Volume 5.

  2. 2.

    1996 Ukraine Law on Space Activity. Unofficial translation in Basic Legal Documents Vol. 5, E.VIII.1.

  3. 3.

    2012 No. 528-IV, Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Space Activities. Unofficial translation available at http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/national/kazakhstan/528-IV_2012-01-06E.pdf.

  4. 4.

    Irmgard Marboe, Nation Space Law in Frans von der Dunk and Fabio Tronchetti (Eds.) Handbook of Space Law, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015, p. 177.

  5. 5.

    Malcolm N. Shaw, International Law, 4th edition 1997, Cambridge University Press, p. 66.

  6. 6.

    Article VIII OST.

  7. 7.

    S.1(1) Austrian Outer Space Act, 2011; Unofficial Translation to the Explanatory Report of the Austrian Outer Space Act; see Irmgard Marboe, The New Austrian Outer Space Act, 61 German Journal of Air and Space Law 1/2012, p. 44.

  8. 8.

    S. 2 Danish Outer Space Act 2016 – “This Act applies to space activities carried out within the Danish State. Furthermore, this Act applies to space activities carried out outside the Danish state 1) on Danish craft or facilities; or 2) by Danish operators”.

  9. 9.

    Article 1FSOA 2008 - French Space is applicable to any natural or juridical person carrying out a space operation under its responsibility and independently.

  10. 10.

    S.2 Swedish Act on Space Activities 1821:963 (Unofficial Translation) – “Space activities may not be carried on from Swedish territory by any party other than the Swedish State without a licence. Nor may a Swedish natural or juridical person carry on space activities anywhere else without a licence”.

  11. 11.

    Refer Article 34 of the Indonesia Space Act of 2013.

  12. 12.

    Article 1, The Russian Law on Space Activities 1993.

  13. 13.

    UK Outer Space Act, 1986 applies to space activities undertaken outside the territory of UK. Whereas the Space Industry Act, 2018 applies to space activities carried on in the United Kingdom. Refer S.1(1) read with S.1(3) of the Space Industry Act, 2018.

  14. 14.

    Article 10,Ukraine Law on Space Activity 1996.

  15. 15.

    Article 11(1) Space Development Promotion Act, 2005.

  16. 16.

    Irmgard Marboe & Karin Traunmüllerr, Small Satellites and Small States: New Incentives for National Space Legislation in 38 Journal of Space Law 2/ 2012, p. 305.

  17. 17.

    Article 2(2) Belgium Space Law, 2005.

  18. 18.

    S.2(2) Dutch Space Activities Act; Refer Irmgard Marboe & Karin Traunmüllerr, Small Satellites and Small States: New Incentives for National Space Legislation in 38 Journal of Space Law 2/ 2012, p.308; Frans von der Dunk, Regulation of Space Activities in the Netherlands – From Hugo Grotiuos to the High Ground of Outer Space in Ram S. Jakhu (Ed.) National Regulation of Space Activities in the Netherlands, 2010 Springer Publication, p. 237.

  19. 19.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 56.

  20. 20.

    Article VI OST.

  21. 21.

    Ram S. Jakhu, Legal Issues Relating to the Global Public Interest in Outer Space, in Journal of Space Law, Vol. 32, No. 1 (2006), pp. 31-110.

  22. 22.

    Willis L. M. Reese, Limitations on the Extraterritorial Application of Law in Dalhousie Law Journal, 1978, p. 594.

  23. 23.

    Stephan Hobe and De Man, ‘National Appropriation of Outer Space and State Jurisdiction to Regulate the Exploitation, Exploration and Utilization of Space Resources’ 66 German Journal of Air and Space Law, 3/2017, p. 470.

  24. 24.

    Influenced by the US Space Resources Exploration and Utilization Act of 2015; on 13 July 2017 Luxembourg adopted “Law on the Exploration and Use of Space Resources. Both of these legislations intend to grant ownership rights to its citizen whosoever may exploit space resources.

  25. 25.

    S. 2 Austrian Space Act, 2011.

  26. 26.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 143.

  27. 27.

    S. 2(2) Austrian Space Act 2011.

  28. 28.

    Article 2 read with Article 3 Belgium Space Law, 2005.

  29. 29.

    Irmgard Marboe, National Space Law in Frans von der Dunk and Fabio Tronchetti (Eds.) Handbook of Space Law, 2015, p. 162. Also refer Irmgard Marboe & Karin Traunmüllerr, Small Satellites and Small States: New Incentives for National Space Legislation in 38 Journal of Space Law 2/ 2012, pp. 289-320.

  30. 30.

    Article 3(2) Belgium Space Law 2005.

  31. 31.

    Article 3(1) Belgium Space Law, 2005.

  32. 32.

    S.4(1) Danish Space Act, 2016.

  33. 33.

    S.4(2) Danish Space Act, 2016 defines space object as “any object, including its component parts, which has been launched into outer space, or which is planned to be launched into outer space, and any device which has been used, or is planned to be used, to launch an object into outer space.”

  34. 34.

    Michael Listner, A Comprehensive First Look at Denmark’s Domestic Space Law, The Space Review, May 31, 2016.

  35. 35.

    S.1 Act on Space Activities, 1982; S.1 of the UK Outer Space Act, 1986 read with S. 1(4) UK Space Industries Act 2018.

  36. 36.

    S.1 Act on Space Activities 1982.

  37. 37.

    Paragraph 3, Russian Licensing Statute, 2006 read with Article 2, Law on Space Activity, 1993. The 1993 Act further illustrates space activity include space researches; remote sensing of the Earth from outer space, including environmental monitoring and meteorology; use of navigation, topographical and geodesic satellite systems; piloted space missions; manufacturing of materials and other products in outer space; other kinds of activity performed with the aid of space technology; creating (including development, manufacture and test), as well as using and transferring of space techniques, space technology, other products and services necessary for carrying out space activity.

  38. 38.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 143.

  39. 39.

    Article 1. Ukraine Law on On Space Activity, 1996.

  40. 40.

    Article 1(3) French Space Operation Act 2008 - “Space operations” is defined as “any activity consisting in launching or attempting to launch an object into outer space, or of ensuring the commanding of a space object during its journey in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, and, if necessary, during its return to Earth.”

  41. 41.

    Article 1(2) French Space Operation Act 2008 - “Space Operator” “means any natural or juridical person carrying out a space operation under its responsibility and independently.”

  42. 42.

    Mireille Coustion, Introduction Space Operation Act 2008 in Space Law Basic Legal Document, E.XVI p. 3.

  43. 43.

    Lucien Rapp, When France Puts its Own Stamp on the Space Law Landscape in 35 Journal of Space Law, 2009, p. 319; republished as Lucien Rapp, When France Puts its Own Stamp on the Space Law Landscape: Comments on Act No. 2008-518 of 3 June 2008 Relative to Space Operations, Air and Space Law Journal, pp. 87-103.

  44. 44.

    Frans G. von der Dunk, Launching from ‘Down Under’ the New Australian Space Activities Act of 1998 in Proceedings of the Forty-Third Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, 2000, AIAA, p. 136.

  45. 45.

    S.3.3.2 Australian the Space Activities Act 1998. Also refer Vernon Nase, Introduction to the ‘Space Activities Act’ in Basic Legal Documents, Vol. 5, E. VII, p. 1. Eleven International Publishing 2015.

  46. 46.

    S.17 New Zealand Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Act 2017.

  47. 47.

    Article 7 Indonesia Law on Space Activities 2013.

  48. 48.

    Article 11 – 14 Indonesia Law on Space Activities 2013.

  49. 49.

    Article 15 – 23 Indonesia Law on Space Activities 2013.

  50. 50.

    Article 24 – 33 Indonesia Law on Space Activities 2013.

  51. 51.

    Article 34 – 36 Indonesia Law on Space Activities 2013.

  52. 52.

    Article 37 Indonesia Law on Space Activities 2013.

  53. 53.

    Article 58 –70 Indonesia Law on Space Activities 2013.

  54. 54.

    Article 1(4) Indonesia Law on Space Activities 2013.

  55. 55.

    Article 1(7) Kazakhstan ‘Law on Space Activities’ 2012.

  56. 56.

    Setsuko Aoki, Introduction to Basic Space Law in Space Law Basic Legal Documents, Eleven Publisher, Volume 5, E.VI – p. 3; Setsuko Aoki; Introduction to the Japanese Basic Space Law of 2008 in German Journal of Air and Space Law, Vol. 57, No. 4 of 2008, pp. 585-589.

  57. 57.

    Von der Dunk, Two New National Space Laws: Russia and South Africa in Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 1996 AIAA, p. 253.

  58. 58.

    Administrative Edict No. 27 of June 20th 2001 enclosing “Regulation on Procedures and on Definition of necessary Requirements for the Request, Evaluation, Issuance, Follow-Up and Supervision of Licenses for carrying out Launching Space Activities on Brazilian Territory” available in Space Law Basic Legal Documents, Vol. 5, 2015, E.XIX.1; Administrative Edict No. 5 of February 21st 2002 enclosing “Regulation on Authorization Procedures for Carrying out Space Launching Activities on Brazilian Territory” available in Space Law Basic Legal Documents, Vol. 5, 2015, E.XIX.2.

  59. 59.

    1999 National Space and Research Development Agency (NASRDA) Act of Nigeria.

  60. 60.

    2005 Canadian Remote Sensing Systems Act.

  61. 61.

    Francis Lyall and Paul B. Larsen, Space Law A Treatise 2009 Asghate Publication, p. 488.

  62. 62.

    §20102 Congress Declaration of Policy and Purpose, 51US Code. NASA ensures that the US activities in space should be devoted to peaceful purposes for the benefit of all humankind; adequate provision be made for aeronautical and space activities so as to achieve welfare and security of the United States; encourage, to the maximum extent possible, the fullest commercial use of space; establishment of long-range studies of the potential benefits to be gained from, the opportunities for, and the problems involved in the utilization of aeronautical and space activities for peaceful and scientific purposes; making available to agencies directly concerned with national defense of information as to discoveries which have value or significance to that agency; cooperation by the United States with other nations and groups of nations etc.

  63. 63.

    Petra A. Vorwig, Regulation of Private Launch Services in the United States, in Ram S. Jakhu (Ed.), National Regulation of Space Activities 2010, Springer Publications, p. 405; Stephen Dempsey, United States Space Law: Commercial Space Launches and Facilities in Proceedings of the forty-ninth Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, AIIAA, p. 71.

  64. 64.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 144.

  65. 65.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 144.

  66. 66.

    Joanne Irene Gabrynowicz, One half Century and Counting: The Evolution of US National Space Law and Three Long-Term Emerging Issues in 4 Harvard Law and Policy Review (2010), 405.

  67. 67.

    Irmgard Marboe, National Space Law in Frans von der Dunk et al. (eds.) Handbook of Space Law, 2015 Edward Elgar Publishing, p. 144.

  68. 68.

    At the 860th meeting, on 8 April 2013, the Legal Subcommittee of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space reconvened its Working Group on the Definition and Delimitation of Outer Space with the objective to determine how necessary is it to do so, given the current level of space activities and technological development; Draft report of the Working Group on the Definition and Delimitation of Outer Space, Legal Subcommittee Fifty-second session Vienna, 8-19 April 2013; A/AC.105/C.2/2013/DEF/L.1.

  69. 69.

    N. Siemon and S. Freeland, “Regulation of Space Activities in Australia” in Ram S. Jakhu (Eds.) National Regulation of Space Activities, p. 52; S. Freeland, “The Australian Regulatory Regime for Space Launch Activities: Out to Launch?” in Proceedings of the Fort-Seventh Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 2005, AIAA, p. 60.

  70. 70.

    Francis Lyall and Paul B. Larsen, Space Law A Treatise 2009 Asghate Publication, p. 475; N. Siemon and S. Freeland, “Regulation of Space Activities in Australia” in Ram S. Jakhu (Eds.) National Regulation of Space Activities, p. 51.

  71. 71.

    Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Space Activities, 2012 No. 528-IV.

  72. 72.

    Article 1(6) Kazakhstan Law on Space Activities.

  73. 73.

    Francis Lyall and Paul B. Larsen, Space Law A Treatise 2009 Asghate Publication; I. H. P. Diedriks-Verschoor and V. Kopal, An Introduction to Space Law, Wolters Kluwer, 2008.

  74. 74.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 145.

  75. 75.

    As per S. 4 of the New Zealand’s Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Act 2017 high altitude means an altitude above the higher of—(a) flight level 600; and (b) the highest upper limit of controlled airspace under the Civil Aviation Act 1990.

  76. 76.

    The 2018 Space Industry Act define “sub-orbital activity” means launching, procuring the launch of, operating or procuring the return to earth of a craft that is capable of operating above the stratosphere including an aircraft carrying such a craft or a balloon that is capable of reaching the stratosphere carrying crew or passengers. Furthermore “space activity” is defined ass — (a) launching or procuring the launch or the return to earth of a space object or of an aircraft carrying a space object (b) operating a space object, or (c) any activity in outer space.

  77. 77.

    S. 4(4) Danish Space Act 2016.

  78. 78.

    Article 1 Definitions; SA Act, 1993.

  79. 79.

    Indonesian Space Act, Section 1(1).

  80. 80.

    Indonesian Space Act, Section 1(3).

  81. 81.

    L. S. Mkumatela, “Review of the South African Regulatory Framework in the Context of International Space Regulation” in 2011 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law, 2012 Eleven Publishers, p. 291.

  82. 82.

    Stephan Hobe, Commentary on Article I in Stephan Hobe/ Bernhard Schmidt-Tedd/ Kai-Uwe Schrogl (eds.) Cologne Commentary on Space Law, Volume 1, Carl Heymanns, 2009, p. 31.

  83. 83.

    Frans G. von der Dunk, The Sky is the Limit- But Where Does it End? In IISL Proceedings of the Forty-eighth Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, AIAA, 2006 p. 84-94.

  84. 84.

    S. 18 Danish Space Act 2016.

  85. 85.

    S.3(3) the UK Outer Space Act 1986; S.4 UK Space Industry Act 2018.

  86. 86.

    S.46 Australian Space Activities Act 1998.

  87. 87.

    S.15 Space Activities Act, 1998.

  88. 88.

    S.11, Space Activities Act, 1998.

  89. 89.

    S.13, Space Activities Act, 1998.

  90. 90.

    S.12, Space Activities Act, 1998.

  91. 91.

    S.14, Space Activities Act, 1998.

  92. 92.

    S.35 and S.37 Indonesia Space Act, 2013.

  93. 93.

    Pamela L. Meredith, A Comparative Analysis of United States Domestic Licensing Regimes for Private Commercial Space Activities in Proceedings of the thirty second Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, October 11-15, 1989, Spain AIIAA, p. 375; Petra A. Vorwig, Regulation of Private Launch Services in the United States, in Ram S. Jakhu (Ed.), National Regulation of Space Activities 2010, Springer Publications, p. 406.

  94. 94.

    “License is the administrative deed, within the competence of AEB, authorized by a Resolution of its Higher Council, granted to a juristic person, single, an association or consortium, for the purpose of carrying out launching space activities on Brazilian territory, in compliance with the terms and conditions established in this Regulation.” – Article 2 of the Regulations, Edict 27/2001.

  95. 95.

    “Authorization is an administrative deed, within the competence of AEB, authorized by a Resolution of its Higher Council, for performance of a specific space launching on Brazilian territory, in compliance with the conditions established in this regulation and legislation in effect.” – Article 3 of the Regulation, Edict 2/2002.

  96. 96.

    José Monserrat Filho, Regulation of Space Activities in Brazil in Ram S. Jakhu National Regulation of Space Activities, 2010, Springer Publication, p. 74.

  97. 97.

    S. 9(1) read with S.6(k) NASRDA Act, 2010.

  98. 98.

    Frans G. von der Dunk, The Second African National Law – The Nigerian NASRDA Act and the Draft Regulations on Licensing and Supervision in 2016 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law, Eleven Publishers 2017, p. 546.

  99. 99.

    S. 2 CRSSS At, 2005.

  100. 100.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 147.

  101. 101.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 147.

  102. 102.

    Space Law a Treatise, 2009, Asgate publisher; 476.

  103. 103.

    S. 29(d) of the 1998 Space Activities Act read with Division 3.1 Space Activities Regulation 200.

  104. 104.

    Space Law a Treatise, 2009, Asgate publisher; 476-477.

  105. 105.

    S.35(3) and S.43(4) of the 1998 Space Activities Act.

  106. 106.

    S.50 of the 1998 Space Activities Act.

  107. 107.

    Article 53 Indonesian Space Act, 2013.

  108. 108.

    S. 51 of the 1998 Space Activities Act.

  109. 109.

    S.52 of the 1998 Space Activities Act.

  110. 110.

    S.52 of the 1998 Space Activities Act.

  111. 111.

    S. 56 of the 1998 Space Activities Act.

  112. 112.

    S.25A of the 1998 Space Activities Act.

  113. 113.

    Article 55(4) Indonesian Space Act, 2013.

  114. 114.

    Article 55(2)(C) Indonesian Space Act, 2013.

  115. 115.

    Article 9, French Space Operation Act, 1998.

  116. 116.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 156.

  117. 117.

    S. 6(1) Austrian Space Act; S.8, S.9 Danish Outer Space Act; S.5(2) UK Outer Space Act read with S.15(5) of the UK Space Industry Act.

  118. 118.

    S.11(1) Belgium Act on Space Activities.

  119. 119.

    S.7(1) & 7(2) Dutch Space Activities Act.

  120. 120.

    S.4, Swedish Act on Space Activities.

  121. 121.

    S.24, S.33 (1), S.40 & S.45 of the 1998 Australian Space Activities Act; S. 14(1), S.2(1), S.30(1), S.37(1) of the New Zealand Space Activities Act.

  122. 122.

    S.15 15(3).

  123. 123.

    Article 19, Space Development Promotion Act, 2005.

  124. 124.

    Article 21(I) of the Administrative Edict 27/2001.

  125. 125.

    S.50908 51 US Code.

  126. 126.

    Kumar Abhijeet, State Practices Towards National Space Legislation in R. Venkata Rao & Kumar Abhijeet (Eds.) Commercialisation and Privatisation of Outer Space – Issues for National Space Legislation, 2016, KW Publishers, p. 86.

  127. 127.

    Article 19 Belgium Space Act 2005.

  128. 128.

    S.14 Austrian Outer Space Act 2011.

  129. 129.

    Article 10 read with Article 11 of the French Space Operation Act, 2008.

  130. 130.

    S.15 Dutch Space Activities Act, 2008.

  131. 131.

    Article 29 Law Of Ukraine On Space Activity 1996.

  132. 132.

    §50917(c), 51 US Code.

  133. 133.

    S.21 Danish Outer Space Act 2016; Article 27 & 28 of the Korean Space Development Promotion Act, 2005; S.54, 57,58 of the UK Space Industry Act 2018.

  134. 134.

    Part VI of the Australian Space Activities Act 1998; Sub part 3 of the New Zealand Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Act 2017; Chapter XVI Indonesian Space Activities Act 2013.

  135. 135.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 179.

  136. 136.

    Article VII OST.

  137. 137.

    S. 11(1) Austrian Outer Space Act, 2011.

  138. 138.

    S. 11(2) Austrian Outer Space Act, 2011.

  139. 139.

    Von der Dunk, Another Addition To National Space Legislation: The Austrian Outer Space Act, Adopted 6 December 2011 in IISL Annual Proceedings on the Law of Outer Space 2012.

  140. 140.

    Absolute liability for damages caused on the earth or in airspace and fault based liability for damages caused elsewhere.

  141. 141.

    Article 15(2)(2) the Belgium Space Law 2005; S.11(2) Danish Space Act 2016.

  142. 142.

    Irmgard Marboe, National Space Law in Frans von der Dunk and Fabio Tronchetti, Handbook of Space Law, Edward Elgar Publisher, p. 159; also refer Mireille Couston, The Legal and Financial Liability Regime under the New French Space Legislation in Lesley Jane Smith and Ingo Baumann (Eds.) Contracting for Space, 2011 Ashgate Publishers, p. 319 – 335.

  143. 143.

    Refer Article VII OST and the Liability Convention.

  144. 144.

    National Space Law, Irmgard Marboe in Frans von der Dunk and Fabio Tronchetti (Eds.) Handbook of Space Law 2015 Edward Elgar Publisher, p. 154.

  145. 145.

    Article 15 Belgium Space Law 2005; S.12 Danish Space Act 2016; Article 14 French Space Operation Act; S.12(1) Dutch Space Activities Act 2008; S.74, Australian Space Activities Act, 1998; S.76 Indonesian Law on Space Activities, 2013; Article 27 Kazakh Law; Article 3 South Korean Space Launch Act, 2007.

  146. 146.

    Jean‐ François Mayence, “12 Questions And 40 Points To Present The Law On Activities Relating To The Launching, Flight Operations And Guidance Of Space Objects” available at https://www.belspo.be/belspo/space/doc/beLaw/PresentLoi_en.pdf.

  147. 147.

    Article 15(3) Belgium Space Law, 2005.

  148. 148.

    S.11(4) Danish Space Act 2016.

  149. 149.

    S. 12(2) read with S.3(4) Dutch Space Activities Act, 2008.

  150. 150.

    For licenses issued prior to 1 October 2015 liability cap does not apply automatically. The holders of such license need to write to the UK Space Agency and ask for a cap to be applied to their licensed mission. Each request will be assessed and notice of the decision will be given in writing. (Annexure B, Revised Guidance For Applicants Outer Space Act 1986.).

  151. 151.

    S. 12 of the Deregulation Act of 2015 – Space Activity: limit on indemnity required.

  152. 152.

    S.50915, 51 US Code read with 14 CFR S.449.19; S.69, Australian Space Activities Act, 1998; Article 5 South Korean Space Liability Act, 2007.

  153. 153.

    S.14 South African Space Affairs Act, 1993.

  154. 154.

    Kumar Abhijeet, Privatisation of Space in India and Need for A Law in Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan et al. Space India 2.0, 2017, p. 113.

  155. 155.

    Michael Gerhard, The Law of Ukraine on Space Activities in 51 German Journal of Air and Space Law 1/2002 p. 59.

  156. 156.

    Niklas Hedman, Swedish Space Legislation in Proceedings of the United nations/ International Institute of Air and Space Law Workshop on Capacity Building in Space Law, 2003 United Nations ST/SPACE/14 p. 114; Niklas Hedman, Swedish Legislation on Space Activities in Christian Brünner/ Edith Walter (Eds.) National Space Law, 2008 Böhlau Verlag, p. 77.

  157. 157.

    Francis Lyall and Paul B. Larsen, Space Law A Treatise 2009 Asghate Publication, p. 489; G. H. Reynolds and R. P. Merges, ‘Towards an Industrial Policy for Outer Space: Problems and Prospects of the commercial Launch Industry’ (1988) Jurimetrics 7-42.

  158. 158.

    Francis Lyall and Paul B. Larsen, Space Law A Treatise 2009 Asghate Publication, p. 489; G. H. Reynolds and R. P. Merges, ‘Towards an Industrial Policy for Outer Space: Problems and Prospects of the commercial Launch Industry’ (1988) Jurimetrics 7-42.

  159. 159.

    Heleen de Brabander-Ypes, Introduction to Dutch Space Activities Act in Space Law Basic Legal Documents, E.XIV.1,p.4; Explanatory Memorandum to the Australian Space Activities Bill 1998. Available at http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au (accessed on 30th November 2016).

  160. 160.

    Article 5(2) Belgium Space Law, 2005.

  161. 161.

    Irmgard Marboe & Karin Traunmüllerr, Small Satellites and Small States: New Incentives for National Space Legislation in 38 Journal of Space Law 2/ 2012, p. 313.

  162. 162.

    S. 13 Danish Space Act 2016; Article 6 French Space Operation Act 2008; S. 3(4) Dutch Space Activities Act, 2008.

  163. 163.

    S. 13 Danish Space Act 2016; Article 6 French Space Operation Act 2008.

  164. 164.

    S. 3(4) Dutch Space Activities Act, 2008.

  165. 165.

    In the financial interest of the Commonwealth and the Industry participants undertaking a space activity the Australian Space Activities Act mandates the total insurance, for each launch or return concerned, must be for an amount not less than A$750 million or the ‘maximum probable loss’ whichever is lesser of the two.

  166. 166.

    Frans von der Dunk, Regulation of Space Activities in the Netherlands – From Hugo Grotiuos to the High Ground of Outer Space in Ram S. Jakhu (Ed.) National Regulation of Space Activities in the Netherlands., 2010 Springer Publication, p.242; Frans G. von der Dunk, Implementing the United Nations Outer Space Treaties – The Case of the Netherlands in Christian Brünner/ Edith Walter (Eds.) National Space Law, 2008 Böhlau Verlag, p. 102.

  167. 167.

    Review Report (May, 2016) on the 1998 of Space Activities Act by ‘Optus Satellite’ – a wholly owned subsidiary of the Singapore Telecommunications Limited.

  168. 168.

    Article 25, Law on Space Activities, 1993.

  169. 169.

    Article 24, 1996 Ukraine Law on Space Activity.

  170. 170.

    S. 5(2)(f) the Outer Space Act, 1986 read with S. 12(3) of the Deregulation Act of 2015.

  171. 171.

    Revised Guidance For Applicants Outer Space Act 1986.

  172. 172.

    Revised Guidance For Applicants Outer Space Act 1986.

  173. 173.

    § 50914, 51 US Code read with 14 CFR, § 440.9.

  174. 174.

    Article 15 SDP Act of 2005. Article 6 of the SL Act 2007 elucidate that the minimum amount of the third party liability insurance is in accordance with the compensation limit in consideration with the domestic and foreign insurance markets.

  175. 175.

    § 50914, 51 US Code read with 14 CFR § 440.17.

  176. 176.

    Francis Lyall and Paul B. Larsen, Space Law A Treatise 2009 Asghate Publication, p. 492; Paul B. Larsen, Cross-Waivers of Liability, in Proceedings of the Thirty-Fifth Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, 1992 AIAA, 91-96; S. Eigenbrodt, Out to Launch: Private Remedies for Outer Space Claims in Journal of Air Law and Commerce, 1989, pp. 185-222.

  177. 177.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 161.

  178. 178.

    Michael Gerhard, Transfer of the Space operation and Control with Respect to Space Object: Problems of Responsibility and Liability of States, 51 German Journal of Air and Space Law, 4/2002, pp. 571-581; Michael Chatzipanagiotis, Registration of Space Objects and the Transfer of Ownership in orbit, 56 German Journal of Air and Space law, 2/2007, pp. 229-238.

  179. 179.

    Unofficial Translation to the Explanatory Report of the Austrian Outer Space Act; see Irmgard Marboe, The New Austrian Outer Space Act, 61 German Journal of Air and Space Law 1/2012, p. 51.

  180. 180.

    S.8 Austrian Outer Space Act, 2011.

  181. 181.

    Article 4(2) Belgium Space Law 2005.

  182. 182.

    Article 13(3) Belgium Space Law 2005.

  183. 183.

    S. 15(1) Danish Space Act 2016; S.3 French Space Operations Act 2008.

  184. 184.

    Article 13(5) Belgium Space Law 2005; S. 15(2) Danish Space Act 2016.

  185. 185.

    S.22-24, S.31-33, S.38-40 of the Australian Space Activities Act 1998 and S.53-54 of the New Zealand Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Act 2017.

  186. 186.

    §50905, 51 US Code read with 14 CFR § 420.45.

  187. 187.

    § 60121, 51US Code read with 15 CFR, § 960.7.

  188. 188.

    §60122(b)(6), 51US Code read with 15 CFR § 960.8.

  189. 189.

    S. 8 Dutch Space Activities Act, 2008.

  190. 190.

    Article 14 Ukraine Law on Space Activity, 1996.

  191. 191.

    Article 16 Ukraine Law on Space Activity, 1996.

  192. 192.

    Article 8 Korean Space Development Promotion Act 2005.

  193. 193.

    Article 26 Kazakhstan Law on Space Activities, 2012.

  194. 194.

    Article 78 Indonesia Space Act 2013.

  195. 195.

    Paragraph 21 Resolutions No. 104, Resolution on Ratification of Provisions for Licensing Space Operations.

  196. 196.

    Article 14(4) South Africa Space Affairs Act 2006 mandate the licensee to notify of any information to which to his knowledge may affect the licensing conditions.

  197. 197.

    S.9(4)(d) NASRDA Act, 2010 merely mention that any deviation from the orbital parameters is to be communicated and where needed prior permission is to be taken. But it is not clear whether a transfer of license or operation of space object is permitted.

  198. 198.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 155.

  199. 199.

    Explanatory memorandum to the Dutch Space Activities Act.

  200. 200.

    Annette Froehlich, Vincent Seffinga (Eds.), National Space Legislation – A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis, Springer Publishers, p. 155.

  201. 201.

    S.15 UK Space Industry Act 2018.

  202. 202.

    Article 17 Russian Law on Space Activities, 1993.

  203. 203.

    Julian Hermida, Legal Basis for National Space Legislation, Kluwer Publication, 2004, p. 11; Irmgard Marboe, National Space Law in Frans von der Dunk et al. (Eds.) Handbook of Space Law, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015, p. 146.

  204. 204.

    As per Article 13 of the Ukraine Law on Space Activity, 1996 all space facilities are subject to mandatory registration in the Register of Space Facilities of Ukraine in accordance with Regulations Governing the Registrations of Space facilities in Ukraine.

  205. 205.

    Julian Hermida, Legal Basis for National Space Legislation, Kluwer Publication, 2004, p. 139.

  206. 206.

    Article 11 Kazakhstan Law on Space Activities 2012.

  207. 207.

    Noel Siemon and Steven Freeland, Regulation of Space Activities in Australia in Ram S. Jakhu (Ed.) National Regulation of Space Activities 2010, Springer, p. 56.

  208. 208.

    S. 10 Danish Space Act, 2016.

  209. 209.

    S. 88 (1)(14) New Zealand’s Outer Space and High-altitude Activities Act 2017.

  210. 210.

    S. 10(1)(8) read with S. 12(5) Austrian Outer Space Act, 2011; Article 4(3) read with Article 5 of the Dutch Space Objects Registry Decree 2007; S.4 Swedish Decree on Space Activities 1982; the UK Registry of Space Objects; S.76-79 Australian Space Activities Act 1998; Article 72 (3) Indonesia Law on Space Activities 2013; Article 8Korean Space Development Promotion Act, 2005; Article 19 of the Brazilian Regulations, Edict 5/2002.

  211. 211.

    S.10 Austrian Outer Space Act 2011.

  212. 212.

    Article 8(3) Korean Space Development Promotion Act, 2005.

  213. 213.

    Article 6 the Royal Implementing Decree, 2008.

  214. 214.

    Article 14 (2)(6) Belgium Space Act 2005; Article 4 of the Dutch Space Objects Registry Decree 2007; the UK Registry of Space Objects.

  215. 215.

    Section 61, the UK Space Industries Act 2018.

  216. 216.

    Article 14(2)(7) Belgium Space Law, 2005.

  217. 217.

    Jean‐ François Mayence, “12 Questions And 40 Points To Present The Law On Activities Relating To The Launching, Flight Operations And Guidance Of Space Objects” available at https://www.belspo.be/belspo/space/doc/beLaw/PresentLoi_en.pdf.

  218. 218.

    Article 14(2)(8) Belgium Space Law, 2005.

  219. 219.

    S. 10 Austrian Outer Space Act, 2011.

  220. 220.

    Unofficial Translation to the Explanatory Report of the Austrian Outer Space Act; see Irmgard Marboe, The New Austrian Outer Space Act, 61 German Journal of Air and Space Law 1/2012, p. 53.

  221. 221.

    Jen-Yves Trebaol, French Current Practice for the Registration of Space Objects and Unsolved Issues in Hobe/ Schmid-Tedd/ Schrogl (Eds.) Current Issues in the Registration of Space Objects 2005 Institute of Air and Space Law, p. 89.

  222. 222.

    Article 11(3) Kazakhstan Law on Space Activities 2012.

  223. 223.

    https://usspaceobjectsregistry.state.gov/pages/home.aspx.

  224. 224.

    S.14 CFR 415.86.

  225. 225.

    Article 3 read with Article 4 of the Dutch Space Objects Registry Decree 2007.

  226. 226.

    Explanatory Memorandum to the Dutch Space Objects Registry Decree 2007.

  227. 227.

    Article 4 the Dutch Space Objects Registry Decree 2007.

  228. 228.

    Article 8(1) Korean Space Development Promotion Act 2005.

  229. 229.

    Article 8(5) Korean Space Development Promotion Act 2005.

  230. 230.

    Article 8(6) Korean Space Development Promotion Act 2005.

  231. 231.

    Article 9(1) SDP Act, 2005.

  232. 232.

    Article 9(2) SDP Act, 2005.

  233. 233.

    Unofficial Translation to the Explanatory Report of the Austrian Outer Space Act; see Irmgard Marboe, The New Austrian Outer Space Act, 61 German Journal of Air and Space Law 1/2012, p. 47.

  234. 234.

    S. 4(1)(4) Austrian Outer Space Act, 2011.

  235. 235.

    S. 5 last line, Austrian Outer Space Act, 2011; Unofficial Translation to the Explanatory Report of the Austrian Outer Space Act; see Irmgard Marboe, The New Austrian Outer Space Act, 61 German Journal of Air and Space Law 1/2012, p. 49.

  236. 236.

    S.5 Austrian Outer Space Act, 2011.

  237. 237.

    Article 5(1); Article 8(9) and Article 11(5) of the Belgium Space Act 2005 read with Article 8 the Royal Implementing Decree 2008.

  238. 238.

    Article 7(2) the Royal Implementing Decree 2008.

  239. 239.

    Article 8(2) Belgium Space Act 2005.

  240. 240.

    Article 8(4) Belgium Space Act 2005.

  241. 241.

    Article 8(5) Belgium Space Act 2005.

  242. 242.

    Article 7 the Royal Implementing Decree 2008.

  243. 243.

    Article 7(4) the Royal Implementing Decree 2008.

  244. 244.

    Article 7(4) the Royal Implementing Decree 2008.

  245. 245.

    Article 7(2) the Royal Implementing Decree 2008.

  246. 246.

    Article 7(3) the Royal Implementing Decree 2008.

  247. 247.

    Peter Hulsroj & Anja Nakarada Pecujlic, New in the Nest: The Danish Space Act in 41Air and Space Law Journal, 6/2016, p. 503.

  248. 248.

    S. 6(1)(4) Danish Space Act 2016.

  249. 249.

    S. 6(1)(5) Danish Space Act 2016.

  250. 250.

    Refer the ILA Model Law. Article 7 – Protection of the environment (1) Space activities shall not cause environmental damage to the Earth and outer space or parts thereof, either directly or indirectly. (2) An environmental impact assessment is required before the beginning of a space activity. (3) Details of the environmental impact assessment shall be laid down in an implementing decree/regulation. Article 8 — Mitigation of space debris (1) Space activities should be carried out in such a manner as to mitigate to the greatest possible extent any potential space debris. (2) The obligation of paragraph 1 includes the obligation to limit debris released during normal operations, to minimize the potential for in-orbit break-ups, to prepare for post-mission disposal and to avoid in-orbit collisions in accordance with international space debris mitigation standards.

  251. 251.

    S.5 French Space Operation Act 2008.

  252. 252.

    S.1(II) French Degree of Authorisation read with S.7(1),8(1) and S.21, S.33, S.34, S.40 of the French Order on Technical Regulations.

  253. 253.

    Order 6, Explanation to the Order Amending the Dutch Space Activities License Application; S.9(1), S.17(1), S.25(10) and S.33 (1) New Zealand Space Activities Act 2017 read with New Zealand Licenses and Permits Regulations.

  254. 254.

    R. Tremayne-Smith, Environmental Protection and Space Debris Issues in the Context of Authorization in Von der Dunk (Ed.) National Space Legislation in Europe, 2011 Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Pp.179-188; 188.

  255. 255.

    S.11 the UK Space Industry Act, 2018.

  256. 256.

    Schedule 1, the UK Space Industry Act 2018.

  257. 257.

    S. 18(b), 1998 Space Activities Act.

  258. 258.

    S. 29(c), 1998 Space Activities Act.

  259. 259.

    S.43(c) & S.43 (d) of the 1998 Space Activities Act read with S.5.01 of the 2001 Space Activities Regulation.

  260. 260.

    Refer Trail Smelter Arbitration (United States v. Canada) 3 RIAA 1907 (1941).

  261. 261.

    Article 5 of the Regulations, Brazil Edict 27/2001. and Article 4, Paragraph 2 of the Regulations, Brazil Edict 5/2002.

  262. 262.

    Article 10 of the Regulations, Brazil Edict 5/2002.

  263. 263.

    José Monserrat Filho, Regulation of Space Activities in Brazil in Ram S. Jakhu National Regulation of Space Activities, 2010, Springer Publication, p. 78.

  264. 264.

    S. 9 CRSSS Act.

  265. 265.

    Schedule 1, S.12 CRSSS Regulation - The remote sensing satellite disposal plan must furnish information pertaining to the potential hazard from space debris and the strategy to mitigate that hazard for each remote sensing satellite of the remote sensing space system, including the method of disposal that is proposed for each satellite and the reliability of that method; the estimated duration of the satellite disposal operation; the probability of loss of human life and how it was calculated; the amount of debris expected to reach the surface of the Earth, the size of the impact area expressed in square meters, and how they were calculated; the geographic boundaries of the likely debris re-entry impact area, the confidence level of the determination of the boundaries and how the boundaries and confidence level were calculated; the identity and quantity of hazardous material and dangerous goods contained in each satellite at the end of its mission life, the quantity expected to reach the surface of the Earth on re-entry and how the quantities were calculated; the orbital elements and epochs of the proposed disposal orbits for each satellite; and an assessment of space debris expected to be released from each satellite during normal operations by explosions, by intentional break-ups and by on-orbit collisions, and the measures proposed to mitigate the production of space debris.

  266. 266.

    Report of the UNCOPUOS, UN Doc. A/62/20 (June 26, 2007).

  267. 267.

    Bruce Mann, Current Status and Recent Developments in Canada’s National Space Law and its Relevance to Pacific Rim Space Law and Activities in Journal of Space Law Vol. 35, No.2, 2009, p. 515.

  268. 268.

    Francis Lyall and Paul B. Larsen, Space Law A Treatise 2009 Asghate Publication, p. 493.

  269. 269.

    S. 420.15 CFR. See S. 431.91 CFR for environmental requirements for reusable launch vehicles.

  270. 270.

    S.4321, 42 US Code.

  271. 271.

    40 CFR Parts 1500-1508.

  272. 272.

    FAA Order 1050.1D.

  273. 273.

    S.60122(b) (4), 51US Code read with S.960.11(b)(12),15 CFR.

  274. 274.

    U.S. Government Orbital Debris Mitigation Standard Practices available at https://www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/usg_od_standard_practices.pdf.

  275. 275.

    Explanatory note to Article 7 & Article 8 of the Sofia Guidelines for a Model Law on National Space Legislation of the International Law Association (ILA).

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    Irmgard Marboe, National Space Law in Frans von der Dunk and Fabio Tronchetti (Eds.) Handbook of Space Law, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015, p. 184.

  277. 277.

    Article 17 Belgium Space Law 2005.

  278. 278.

    Article 22 & 23 SDP Act, 2005.

  279. 279.

    Article 5 of the Regulations, Edict 27/2001. and Article 4, Paragraph 2 of the Regulations, Edict 5/2002.

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    José Monserrat Filho, Regulation of Space Activities in Brazil in Ram S. Jakhu National Regulation of Space Activities, 2010, Springer Publication, p. 76.

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    Olavo de O. Bittencourt Neto, Private Launch Activities on Brazilian Territory – Current Legal Framework in 58 German Journal of Air and Space Law 3/2009, p. 434.

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    Frans G. von der Dunk and Sergei A. Negoda, Ukrainian National Space Law from an International Perspective in Space Policy 18 (2002), p. 18.

  283. 283.

    Article 9, 1996 Ukraine Law on Space Activity.

  284. 284.

    S.301, 47 US Code.

  285. 285.

    Now Chapter 201 in 51 US Code.

  286. 286.

    As amended in 1988,1998 and 2004. Now Chapter 509 in 51 US Code.

  287. 287.

    Now Chapter 601 in 51 US Code.

  288. 288.

    S. 2, 51 US Code.

  289. 289.

    Article 22 FSOA 2008.

  290. 290.

    Philippe Achilleas, French Space Legislation Development -The New French Legislation on Satellite Frequencies Assignments in Proceedings of the Forty-Seventh Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 2005 AIAA, pp. 130–133.

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    1972:207.

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    V. S. Mani, Space Policy and Law in India, Journal of Space Law, Volume 35, No. 2, 2009.

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    Steven Freeland, When Laws are Not Enough – The Stalled Development of An Australian Space Launch Industry in (2004) 8(1) University of Western Sydney Law Review 80.

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  300. 300.

    Irmgard Marboe, National Space Law in Frans von der Dunk and Fabio Tronchetti (Eds.) Handbook of Space Law, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015, p. 166.

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    Steven Freeland, When Laws are Not Enough – The Stalled Development of An Australian Space Launch Industry in University of Western Sydney Law Review, (2004) 8(1), p. 80.

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    Frans G. von der Dunk, Launching from ‘Down Under’ the New Australian Space Activities Act of 1998 in Proceedings of the Forty-Third Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, 2000, AIAA, p. 136.

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Abhijeet, K. (2020). State Practices Towards National Space Legislation. In: National Space Legislation for India. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2675-6_3

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