Abstract
West Asia stretches from Turkey in the west and north to Afghanistan in the east and the Arabian Peninsula in the south, and its milk culture can be characterized through a geographical classification of milk processing techniques and milk use across the region. First, an account of the milk processing system of pastoralists in Syria demonstrates how effectively the concept of milk processing systems provides a full picture of a particular area’s milk processing technology. Second, the examination of the milk processing systems of three ethnic groups in Iran reveals that while milk processing techniques are cultural products developed by a particular group, they are shared across ethnic boundaries within a given area. Finally, the inclusion of cases reported in the literature in a geographical classification of milk processing technology based on the revised model of milk processing systems brings to light the features of West Asian milk culture.
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Notes
- 1.
Awassi store fat in the tail, which weighs 2–10 kg, is wide at the base, and extends below the heel. Average weight at birth is 5 kg for males and 4 kg for females. Rams typically reach 70–80 cm in height and weigh 60–90 kg, while ewes stand 60–70 cm and weigh 30–50 kg.
Rams and ewes generally have white bodies with red or brown faces and limbs and sometimes overall patches of red, brown, black, and gray. Ears are long and pendulous, around 17 cm in length, although short-eared and earless individuals may be encountered. Rams’ horns are about 40 cm in length and spiral. Hornless rams are extremely rare. Ewes are generally hornless, but around 25% have short horns. Wool is coarse and is used for blankets and carpets. Annual wool production averages about 2.1 kg per head
Mating occurs mainly from July to September, and births occur mainly from December through February. Two births per year are possible, but poor nutritional conditions limit this to one. Twins account for only 5–10% of births. Ewes may mate and give birth at one year of age, but generally begin at age two. Milk production is high, with 168 kg per 168–190 days of lactation being recorded. Improved varieties have been bred in Israel and Syria, with yields exceeding 300 kg per 210 days and a record high of 890 kg. Milk has a high-fat content of 5.4%.
In Syria, red-faced or brown-faced varieties of Awassi are called shʾara (or chacra, chagra, or chakra). Black-bodied Awassi are called sooda, and those with brown and white or gray and white patches are called rukhama. Pastoralists use these and other features to identify individuals (Mori 1970; Payne 1990; FAO 1987).
- 2.
Two varieties of goat are found in Syria, Jabali, and Shami. Of the total of 1.08 million goats recorded in 1996, approximately 95% were Jabali. Though goats number only 8% of the number of sheep, their adaptability to arid conditions makes them valuable livestock.
Jabali seldom interbreed with other varieties, and their total number has fluctuated little in recent years. They are smaller than Shami and produce less milk.
Jabali does have an average body weight of about 2.4 kg at birth and 33 kg at maturity. Adult bucks weigh about 50 kg on average. Average adult height is about 68 cm for bucks and 60 cm for does. Both sexes have horns. The number of offspring per birth averages 1.5, though in areas with poor nutritional conditions, this falls to around 1.0. The average lactation period is 225 days, over which the total volume of milk produced is only about 200 kg. Milk has a fat content of 4.8%. Annual wool production averages about 1.2 kg per head (Payne 1990; FAO 1987).
- 3.
ʿAkshi are thought to be a cross between native Syrian cattle and Asian cattle that had earlier migrated to Europe. They are adapted to Syria’s natural environment, and individuals in herds said to be ʿAkshi are similar in form and productivity, but they have diverse aspects that suggest that ʿAkshi is not a single breed. Numbers have decreased in recent years due to ongoing interbreeding with Fresian and Holstein cattle.
At birth, male ʿAkshi calves weigh around 22 kg, and female calves around 21 kg. The average weight at one year of age is about 160 kg, and at two years about 290 kg. Mature bulls weigh around 450 kg and stand 138 cm high, while cows reach 410 kg and 124 cm. The average daily weight increase ranges from 400 to 650 g, with an average of 500 g. About 70% of both sexes have horns. The average age at first calving is 30 months. Depending on nutritional and environmental conditions, total milk production in one season varies from 200 to 1,200 kg and averages 747 kg. Lactation continues for 150–195 days, with an average duration of 195 days. Milk fat content is high, 4.0%. Hair is multicolored.
- 4.
Khobz, sometimes called Arabic bread (Nakao 1972), is made by kneading wheat flour with water and yeast, and after fermentation for several hours, the dough is flattened and baked quickly for about one minute in an oven (tanoor). The oven is heated by burning wood inside, and when the fire has settled, the khobz is attached to the oven wall to bake in the residual heat (Plate 2.6).
- 5.
Threshed ripe wheat grains are boiled in water, dried, then coarsely ground to produce burghol. It is used in cooking, and because it has been heated, it can also be eaten after soaking in water.
- 6.
Qureysha is northeast Syrian dialectal variant of qariishe, freshly made cheese.
- 7.
The Iranian pastoralists no longer remembered the name or origin of their ethnic group. Here, I refer to them simply as the Iranian pastoralists.
- 8.
Kaserumah suuyeh means “water of kaserumah.”
- 9.
Paniir suuyeh means “water of paniir.”
- 10.
Literally, “water of duug.”
- 11.
Literally, “water of paniir.”
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Hirata, M. (2020). Milk Culture of West Asia. In: Milk Culture in Eurasia. Springer Geography. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1765-5_2
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