Abstract
This chapter examines how income inequality in Canada has contributed to an “achievement gap” between students from lower and higher socioeconomic backgrounds in Canada. The impacts of socioeconomic inequality in the preschool and elementary years can lead to significant differences in academic achievement between children from affluent and lower income families. The chapter surveys existing research regarding low socioeconomic status and childhood academic outcomes and then explores structural and sociocultural factors associated with socioeconomic achievement gaps. Next, the chapter examines how cultural capital deficits directly affect access to postsecondary education. In conclusion, the chapter discusses some of the evidence-based interventions aimed at eliminating the socioeconomic achievement gap in Canadian schools.
Keywords
- Student achievement
- Socioeconomic status
- Inequality
- Canada
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Buying options
References
Abada, T., Hou, F., & Ram, B. (2009). Ethnic differences in educational attainment among the children of Canadian immigrants. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 34(1), 1–28. Retrieved from https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/cjs/index.php/CJS/article/view/1651.
Ainsworth, J. (2002). Why does it take a village? The mediation of neighborhood effects on educational achievement. Social Forces, 81(1), 117–152. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2002.0038.
Belley, P., Frenette, M., & Lochner, L. (2014). Post‐secondary attendance by parental income in the U.S. and Canada: Do financial aid policies explain the differences? Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d’économique, 47(2), 664–696. https://doi.org/10.1111/caje.12088.
Berger, J., Motte, A., & Parkin, A. (2009). The price of knowledge: Access and student finance in Canada (4th ed.). Montreal, QC: Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation.
Blatchford, A. (2016, December 6). Report by Parliamentʼs budget office finds on-reserve schools underfunded by thousands of dollars per student. CBC News. Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/budget-watchdog-pbo-first-nations-education-schools-1.3883301.
Blue, L. E., & Pinto, L. E. (2017). Other ways of being: Challenging dominant financial literacy discourses in Aboriginal context. Australian Educational Researcher, 44(1), 55–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-017-0226-y.
Bourdieu, P. (1976). Systems of education and systems of thought. In R. Dale, G. Esland, & M. MacDonald (Eds.), Schooling and capitalism: A sociological reader (pp. 192–200). London, UK: Routledge.
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste (R. Nice, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. (1977). Reproduction in education, society and culture. London, UK: Sage.
Breau, S. (2015). Rising inequality in Canada: A regional perspective. Applied Geography, 61, 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.11.010.
British Columbia Ministry of Education. (2017). Aboriginal report 2012/13–2016/17: How are we doing? Retrieved from https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/education/administration/kindergarten-to-grade-12/reports/ab-hawd/2016-ab-hawd-school-district-public.pdf.
Burton, P., Phipps, S., & Zhang, L. (2013). From parent to child: Emerging inequality in outcomes for children in Canada and the U.S. Child Indicators Research, 6(2), 363–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-012-9175-1.
Caldas, S. J., Bernier, S., & Marceau, R. (2009). Explanatory factors of the Black achievement gap in Montréalʼs public and private schools: A multivariate analysis. Education and Urban Society, 41(2), 197–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124508325547.
Campbell, C. (2017). Developing teachers’ professional learning: Canadian evidence and experiences in a world of educational improvement. Canadian Journal of Education, 40(2), 1–33. Retrieved from http://journals.sfu.ca/cje/index.php/cje-rce/article/view/2446/2411.
Caro, D. H., McDonald, J. T., & Willms, J. D. (2009). Socio-economic status and academic achievement trajectories from childhood to adolescence. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne de lʼéducation, 32(3), 558–590.
Cassidy, K. (2015). Barriers to post-secondary education: Perspectives from Niagara (NCO Policy Brief #22). St. Catharines, ON: Brock University. Retrieved from https://brocku.ca/brock-news/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/marchfinalniagara-community-observatory-policy-paper-201412-8pp-print-march.pdf.
Cheng, L., & Yan, W. (2018). Immigrant student achievement and education policy in Canada. In L. Volante, D. Klinger, & Ö. Bilgili (Eds.), Immigrant student achievement and education policy: Cross-cultural approaches (pp. 137–153). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Childs, S. E., Finnie, R., & Martinello, F. (2017). Postsecondary student persistence and pathways: Evidence from the YITS-A in Canada. Research in Higher Education, 58(3), 270–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-016-9424-0.
Childs, S., Finnie, R., & Mueller, R. E. (2018). Assessing the importance of cultural capital on post-secondary education attendance in Canada. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 42(1), 35–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2016.1206853.
Chmielewski, A. K. (2014). An international comparison of achievement inequality in within- and between-school tracking systems. American Journal of Education, 120(3), 293–324. https://doi.org/10.1086/675529.
Chu, M. (2017, September 11). Why Canada fails to be an education superpower. The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/why-canada-fails-to-be-an-education-superpower-82558.
Clandfield, D., Curtis, B., Galabuzi, G.-E., San Vicente, A. G., Livingstone, D. W., & Smaller, H. (2014, Winter). Restacking the deck: Streaming by class, race and gender in Ontario schools [Special issue]. Our Schools/Our Selves. Retrieved from https://crpstem.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/restacking-the-deck.pdf.
Cleveland, G., & Krashinsky, M. (2003). Fact and fantasy: Eight myths about early childhood education and care. Toronto, ON: Childcare Resource and Research Unit.
Cleveland, G., & Krashinsky, M. (2005). Financing early learning and care in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Council for Social Development. Retrieved from http://www.childcarepolicy.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/WinnipegPaper.pdf.
Coughlan, S. (2017, August 2). How Canada became an education superpower. BBC News. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/business-40708421.
Council of Ministers of Education, Canada. (2018). Quality education for all: Canadian report for the UNESCO Ninth Consultation of Member States on the Implementation of the Convention and Recommendation Against Discrimination in Education. Retrieved from https://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/382/Canadian-report-on-anti-discrimination-in-education-EN.pdf.
Cox, D. G. H., & Strange, C. C. (2016). Serving diverse students in Canadian higher education. Kingston, ON: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Davies, S., Maldonado, V., & Zarifa, D. (2014). Effectively maintaining inequality in Toronto: Predicting student destinations in Ontario universities. Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie, 51(1), 22–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12032.
Dei, G. S. (2008). Schooling as community: Race, schooling, and the education of African youth. Journal of Black Studies, 38(3), 346–366. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934707306570.
Deming, D. (2009). Early childhood intervention and life-cycle skill development: Evidence from Head Start. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(3), 111–134. Retrieved from http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~deming/papers/Deming_HeadStart.pdf.
Education Quality and Accountability Office. (2017). Provincial assessment results. Retrieved from http://www.eqao.com/en/assessments/results.
Esses, V., & Bhardwaj, A. (2006). The role of prejudice in the discounting of immigrant skills. In R. Mahalingam (Ed.), Cultural psychology of immigrants (pp. 114–127). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59(2), 77–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.77.
Fagan, J. (2017). Income and cognitive stimulation as moderators of the association between family structure and preschoolers’ emerging literacy and math. Journal of Family Issues, 38(17), 2400–2424. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X16640018.
Ferguson, H., Bovaird, S., & Mueller, M. (2007). The impact of poverty on educational outcomes for children. Paediatrics & Child Health, 12(8), 701–706.
Fillis, S., Dunne, L., & McConnell, B. (2018). Empirical studies on early intervention services for toddlers aged 24–36 months: A systematic review. International Journal of Educational Research, 89, 119–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2017.10.008.
Finnie, R. (2012). Access to post-secondary education: The importance of culture. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(6), 1161–1170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.01.035.
Finnie, R., Childs, S., & Wismer, A. (2011). Access to post-secondary education among under-represented and minority groups: Measuring the gaps, assessing the causes (Working Paper No. 2011-2001). Ottawa, ON: Education Policy Research Initiative.
Frempong, G., Ma, X., & Mensah, J. (2012). Access to postsecondary education: Can schools compensate for socioeconomic disadvantage? Higher Education, 63(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-011-9422-2.
Frenette, M., & Chan, P. C. W. (2015, March 31). Why are academic prospects brighter for private high school students? Economic Insights (Statistics Canada catalogue no. 11-626-X-No. 044). Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/11-626-X2015044.
Galabuzi, G. (2006). Canada’s economic apartheid: The social exclusion of racialized groups in the new century. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’ Press.
Garriga, A., & Martínez-Lucena, J. (2018). Growing up in a single mother family and studentʼs tardiness: A cross-national study exploring the moderating role of family resources. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 59(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2017.1343564.
Glick, J., & Hohmann-Marriott, B. (2007). Academic performance of young children in immigrant families: The significance of race, ethnicity, and national origins. The International Migration Review, 41(2), 371–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2007.00072.x.
Guinan, D. (2016). The social environment and Indigenous student success in a Canadian post-secondary institution (Doctoral dissertation). Royal Roads University, Victoria, British Columbia. Retrieved from https://viurrspace.ca/handle/10170/1039.
Health Canada & Public Health Agency of Canada. (2017). Evaluation of the aboriginal head start in urban and northern communities program 2011–2012 to 2015–2016. Ottawa, ON: Author.
Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario. (2017). Quick stats. Retrieved from http://www.heqco.ca/en-ca/Research/quickstats/Pages/default.aspx.
Hoxby, C., & Turner, S. (2013, Fall). Expanding college opportunities. Education Next, 13(4). Retrieved from https://www.educationnext.org/expanding-college-opportunities/.
Imbeau, E. (2017). Saving for post-secondary education: Findings from the Canadian financial capability survey: Technical study prepared for the Canada education savings program summative evaluation. Gatineau, QC: Employment and Social Development Canada. Retrieved from http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.834539/publication.html.
Ingvarson, L., & Rowley, G. (2017). Quality assurance in teacher education and outcomes: A study of 17 countries. Educational Researcher, 46(4), 177–193. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X17711900.
James, C. E., & Turner, T. (2017). Towards race equity education: The schooling of Black students in the Greater Toronto Area. Toronto, ON: York University. Retrieved from http://edu.yorku.ca/files/2017/04/Towards-Race-Equity-in-Education-April-2017.pdf.
Jones, G. A. (2014). Building and strengthening policy research capacity: Key issues in Canadian higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 39(8), 1332–1342. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.949543.
Keeley, B. (2015). Income inequality: The gap between rich and poor Paris. France: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264246010-en.
King, A. J. C., Warren, W. K., King, M. A., Brook, J. E., & Kocher, P. R. (2009). Who doesn’t go to post-secondary education? Final report of findings for Colleges Ontario Collaborative Research Project. Toronto, ON: Colleges Ontario. Retrieved from https://www.collegesontario.org/research/who-doesnt-go-to-pse.pdf.
Klinger, D. A., & Saab, H. (2012). Educational leadership in the context of low-stakes accountability: The Canadian perspective. In L. Volante (Ed.), School leadership in the context of standards-based reform: International perspectives (pp. 73–96). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Klinger, D. A., Volante, L., & Bilgili, Ö. (2018). Cross-cultural approaches to mitigating the immigrant student performance disadvantage. In L. Volante, D. A. Klinger, & O. Bilgili (Eds.), Immigrant student achievement and education policy: Cross-cultural approaches (pp. 197–206). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Koehler, C. (2012). Effects of the Head Start program in the USA as indicators of ethnic inequalities. In Z. Bekerman & T. Geisen (Eds.), International handbook of migration, minorities and education (pp. 383–401). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Krahn, H., & Taylor, A. (2007). “Streaming” in the 10th grade in four Canadian provinces in 2000. Education Matters, 4(2), 16–26. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/81-004-x/81-004-x2007002-eng.htm.
Kwok, S., & Wallis, M. A. (2008). Daily struggles: The deepening racialization and feminization of poverty in Canada. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’ Press.
Ladson-Billings, G. (2014). Culturally relevant pedagogy 2.0: a.k.a. the Remix. Harvard Educational Review, 84(1), 74–84. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.84.1.p2rj131485484751.
Latif, E. (2017). The relationship between intergenerational educational mobility and public spending: Evidence from Canada. Economic Papers, 36(3), 335–350. https://doi.org/10.1111/1759-3441.12177.
Laurin, J. C., Geoffroy, M., Boivin, M., Japel, C., Raynault, M., Tremblay, R. E., et al. (2015). Child care services, socioeconomic inequalities, and academic performance. Pediatrics, 136(6), 1112–1124. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-0419.
Liberal Party of Canada in Alberta. (2011, March 11). The Canadian learning strategy. Retrieved from http://alberta.liberal.ca/canadian-learning-strategy/.
Liebenberg, L., Theron, L., Sanders, J., Munford, R., van Rensburg, A., Rothmann, S., et al. (2016). Bolstering resilience through teacher-student interaction: Lessons for school psychologists. School Psychology International, 37(2), 140–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034315614689.
Lightman, N., & Gingrich, L. G. (2013). The intersecting dynamics of social exclusion: Age, gender, race and immigrant status in Canada’s labour market. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 44(3), 121–145. https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2013.0010.
Livingstone, A., & Weinfeld, M. (2017). Black students and high school completion in Quebec and Ontario: A multivariate analysis. Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie, 54(2), 174–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12144.
Lyon, K., Frohard-Dourlent, H., Fripp, P., & Guppy, N. (2014). Canada. In P. A. Stevens & A. G. Dworkin (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of race and ethnic inequalities in education (pp. 170–204). Singapore: Springer.
Merry, J. J. (2013). Tracing the U.S. deficit in PISA reading skills to early childhood: Evidence from the United States and Canada. Sociology of Education, 86(3), 234–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040712472913.
Milne, E. (2016). Educational issues and inequalities: Experiences of Indigenous Canadian students. In Y. Besen-Cassino (Ed.), Education and youth today (Sociological studies of children and youth, Vol. 20, pp. 65–89). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group.
O’Grady, K., Deussing, M.-A., Scerbina, T., Fung, K., & Muhe, N. (2016). Measuring up: Canadian results of the OECD PISA study (Statistics Canada catalogue no. 81-590-X). https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/81-590-x/81-590-x2010001-eng.htm.
Oreopoulos, P. (2011). Why do skilled immigrants struggle in the labor market? A field experiment with thirteen thousand resumes. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 3(4), 148–171. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.3.4.148.
Oreopoulos, P., Brown, R. S., & Lavecchia, A. M. (2017). Pathways to education: An integrated approach to helping at-risk high school students. Journal of Political Economy, 125(4), 947–984. https://doi.org/10.1086/692713.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2006). Glossary of statistical terms. Retrieved from https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=4842.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2016a). PF3.1: Public spending on childcare and early education. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF3_1_Public_spending_on_childcare_and_early_education.pdf.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2016b). PISA 2015 results (Volume I): Excellence and equity in education, PISA. Paris, France: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264266490-en.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2017). Educational opportunity for all: Overcoming inequality through the life course. Paris, France: OECD Publishing. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/education/educational-opportunity-for-all-9789264287457-en.htm.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2018a). Education GPS. Retrieved from http://gpseducation.oecd.org/.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2018b). OECD social and welfare statistics: Income distribution. https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00654-en.
Parekh, G., Killoran, I., & Crawford, C. (2011). The Toronto connection: Poverty, perceived ability, and access to education equity. Canadian Journal of Education, 34(3), 249–279.
Parker, P. D., Marsh, H. W., Jerrim, J. P., Guo, J., & Dicke, T. (2018). Inequity and excellence in academic performance: Evidence from 27 countries. American Educational Research Journal, 55(4), 836–858. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218760213.
Pathways to Education. (2017). Community mapping tool: Mapping at-risk communities in Canada. Retrieved from https://www.pathwaystoeducation.ca/community-mapping-tool-mapping-risk-communities-canada.
Perna, L. W. (2006). Studying college choice: A proposed conceptual model. In J. C. Smart (Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (Vol. 21, pp. 99–157). Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic.
Picot, G., & Hou, F. (2014). Immigration, low income and income inequality in Canada: What’s new in the 2000s? (Statistics Canada catalogue no. 11F0019M). Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11f0019m/11f0019m2014364-eng.htm.
Policy Horizons Canada. (2017). Unlocking the potential of marginalized youth. Ottawa, ON: Government of Canada. Retrieved from http://horizons.gc.ca/en/content/unlocking-potential-marginalized-youth.
Portnow, S., & Hussain, S. (2016). Income and cognitive stimulation: A reanalysis of the Minnesota family investment program. Prevention Science, 17(5), 565–571. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0650-7.
Reitz, J. G. (2016). Towards empirical comparison of immigrant integration across nations. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(13), 2338–2345. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2016.1203448.
Restoule, J., Mashford-Pringle, A., Chacaby, M., Smillie, C., Brunette, C., & Russel, G. (2013). Supporting successful transitions to post-secondary education for Indigenous students: Lessons from an institutional ethnography in Ontario, Canada. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 4(4), Art. 4. Retrieved from https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/iipj/vol4/iss4/4/.
Roos, N., Brownell, M., Guevremont, R., Levin, B., MacWilliam, L., & Roos, L. (2006). The complete story: A population-based perspective on school performance and educational testing. Canadian Journal of Education, 29(3), 684–705.
Satzewich, V., & Liodakis, N. (2013). The concepts of ethnicity and “raceˮ. In V. Satzewich & N. Liodakis (Eds.), Race and ethnicity in Canada: A critical introduction (pp. 9–28). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press.
Schmidt, W. H., Burroughs, N. A., Zoido, P., & Houang, R. T. (2015). The role of schooling in perpetuating educational inequality: An international perspective. Educational Researcher, 44(7), 371–386. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X15603982.
Shaker, E. (2014). Our schools/our selves: Poverty, polarization, and the educational achievement gap. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.
Statistics Canada. (2011, December 16). Postsecondary education participation among underrepresented and minority groups. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/81-004-x/2011004/article/11595-eng.htm.
Statistics Canada. (2013, November 25). The education and employment experiences of first nations people living off reserve, Inuit, and Métis: Selected findings from the 2012 Aboriginal Peoples survey. The Daily (Statistics Canada catalogue no. 99-012-X201100311849). Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/131125/dq131125b-eng.pdf.
Statistics Canada. (2017a, September 13). Children living in low-income households. Retrieved from http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/98-200-x/2016012/98-200-x2016012-eng.cfm.
Statistics Canada. (2017b, October 25). Ethnic and cultural origins of Canadians: Portrait of a rich heritage. Retrieved from http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/98-200-x/2016016/98-200-x2016016-eng.cfm.
Statistics Canada. (2017c, November 29). Does education pay? A comparison of earnings by level of education in Canada and its provinces and territories. Retrieved from http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/98-200-x/2016024/98-200-x2016024-eng.cfm.
Statistics Canada. (2017d, November 29). Education in Canada: Key results from the 2016 census. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/171129/dq171129a-eng.htm.
Statistics Canada. (2018a, March 13). Gini coefficients of adjusted market, total and after-tax income. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1110013401.
Statistics Canada. (2018b, July 30). Women in Canada: A gender-based statistical report. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-503-x/89-503-x2015001-eng.htm.
Thomson, K., Guhn, M., Richardson, C. G., Ark, T. K., & Shoveller, J. (2017). Profiles of children’s social–emotional health at school entry and associated income, gender and language inequalities: A cross-sectional population-based study in British Columbia, Canada. BMJ Open, 7(7). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-015353.
Timmons, V. (2013). Aboriginal students’ perceptions of post-secondary success initiatives. Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 33(1), 231–236.
Tuovinen, J. (2008). Learning the craft of teaching and learning from worldʼs best practice: The case of Finland. In D. McInerney & A. Liem (Eds.), Teaching and learning: International best practice (pp. 51–77). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
UNESCO. (2014). The diversification of post-secondary education. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002269/226981e.pdf.
van Huizen, T., & Plantenga, J. (2018). Do children benefit from universal early childhood education and care? A meta-analysis of evidence from natural experiments. Economics of Education Review, 66, 206–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.08.001.
Volante, L., Klinger, D. A., Siegel, M., & Bilgili, Ö. (2017). Making sense of the performance (dis)advantage for immigrant students across Canada. Canadian Journal of Education, 40(3), 330–361.
Ward, M., & Belanger, M. (2010). The family dynamic: A Canadian perspective (5th ed.). Toronto, ON: Nelson.
White, L. A., Prentice, S., & Perlman, M. (2015). The evidence base for early childhood education and care programme investment: What we know, what we donʼt know. Evidence & Policy, 11(4), 529–546. https://doi.org/10.1332/174426415X14210818992588.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Butler, A. (2019). Socioeconomic Inequality and Student Outcomes in Canadian Schools. In: Volante, L., Schnepf, S., Jerrim, J., Klinger, D. (eds) Socioeconomic Inequality and Student Outcomes. Education Policy & Social Inequality, vol 4. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9863-6_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9863-6_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-9862-9
Online ISBN: 978-981-13-9863-6
eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)