Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Eating Meat or Eating Money? Factors Influencing Animal-Source Food Consumption in Timor-Leste

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Food Security in Small Island States

Abstract

Poor dietary quality is an underlying contributor to the high rates of maternal and child undernutrition in Timor-Leste. The majority of households own livestock, however consumption of domestic animal-source food (ASF) is low, while few households report using non-domesticated species. Two hundred and three households with children under 24 months, in 3 villages, were enrolled in a quantitative study of maternal and child dietary diversity, alongside 12 key informants recruited for in-depth interviews and 312 participants, mostly mothers and fathers of young children, for focus group discussions. Participants expressed a desire to consume more ASF. Barriers to ASF consumption included having low-income or limited-income streams, high levels of small livestock morbidity and mortality leading to small or unstable flock or herd sizes, reserving livestock for sale and ceremonies and living far from forested areas or where hunting was not allowed. Factors that enabled greater ASF consumption included villages being near forested areas with wild animal populations, observance of a large number of ceremonies of long duration, households with a greater number of small livestock, and where women were able to make autonomous decisions about livestock assets. Policies and programmes designed to achieve sustainable improvements in household nutrition would include a focus on women and improving the health and production of small livestock species frequently utilised by households.

An earlier version of this chapter was published as ‘Factors influencing animal-source food consumption in Timor-Leste’ in Food Security (2018), 10(3), 741–762. Used with permission from Springer Nature Customer Service Centre GmbH.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Administrative Committee on Coordination (ACC)/Sub-Committee on Nutrition (SCN). (2000). Fourth report on the world nutrition situation. Geneva: ACC/SCN in collaboration with International Food Policy Research Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alders, R., & Spradbrow, P. (2001). Controlling Newcastle disease in village chickens: A field manual. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alders, R., Awuni, J., Bagnol, B., Farrell, P., & de Haan, N. (2013). Impact of Avian Influenza on village poultry production globally. EcoHealth. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-013-0867-x.

  • AMSAT International. (2011). Fish and animal protein consumption and availability in Timor-Leste. Regional Fisheries Livelihoods Programme for South and Southeast Asia (GCP/RAS/237/SPA). Field Project Document 2011/TIM/02.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, A.B., Pant, J., Thilsted, S.H. (2013). Food and nutrition security in Timor-Leste. CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems. Penang, Malaysia. Project Report: AAS-2013-29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Azzarri, C., Zezza, A., Haile, B., & Cross, E. (2015). Does livestock ownership affect animal source foods consumption and child nutritional status? The Journal of Development Studies, 51(8), 1034–1059.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bagnol, B. (2001, March). The social impact of Newcastle disease control. ACIAR Newsletter, 69–75. Retrieved March 11, 2018, from http://aciar.gov.au/files/node/2131/pr103chapter16.pdf.

  • Bettencourt, E., Tilman, M., Narciso, V., da Silva Carvalho, M., & de Sousa Henriques, P. (2015). The livestock roles in the wellbeing of rural communities of Timor-Leste. Revista de Economia e Sociologia Rural. https://doi.org/10.1590/1234-56781806-94790053s01005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanton, C., Moshfegh, A., Baer, D., & Kretsch, M. (2006). The USDA automated multiple-pass method accurately estimates group total energy and nutrient intake. Journal of Nutrition, 136(10), 2594–2599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. (1991). The importance of dietary quality versus quantity for weanlings in less developed countries: a framework for discussion. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 13(2).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cardinoza, M. (2005). Reviving traditional NRM regulations (Tara Bundu) as a community-based approach of protecting carbon stocks and securing livelihoods. In D. Murdiyarso & H. Herwati (Eds.), Proceedings of Work-shop on Carbon Sequestration and Sustainable Livelihoods (pp. 197–210). Bogor: CIFOR.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castro, A. (2013). An approach to the food habits of three communities in Timor-Leste: Final report. Dili: CARE International Timor-Leste.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conceição, F. (2012). Major findings of active diseases surveillance on priority animal diseases of Timor-Leste. Communication presented at the final project workshop. Dil: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, K., Ruel, M., Ferguson, E., & Uauy, R. (2015a). Women’s empowerment and child nutritional status in South Asia: A synthesis of the literature. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 11, 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, K., Ploubidis, G. B., Menon, P., Ruel, M., Kadiyala, S., Uauy, R., et al. (2015b). Women’s empowerment in agriculture and child nutritional status in rural Nepal. Public Health Nutrition, 18, 3134–3145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darapheak, C., Takano, T., Kizuki, M., Nakamura, K., & Seino, K. (2013). Consumption of animal source foods and dietary diversity reduce stunting in children in Cambodia. International Archives of Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/1755-7682-6-29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, G., & Casey, A. (1973). The survival of Brucella abortus in milk and milk products. British Veterinary Journal, 129(4), 345–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Bruyn, J., Wong, J., Bagnol, B., Pengelly, B., & Alders, R. (2015). Family poultry production and food and nutrition security. CAB Reviews, 10(13), 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeBoer, M., Lima, A., Oría, R., Scharf, R., et al. (2012). Early childhood growth failure and the developmental origins of adult disease: Do enteric infections and malnutrition increase risk for the metabolic syndrome? Nutrition Reviews, 70(11), 642–653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delgado, C. (2003). Rising consumption of meat and milk in developing countries has created a new food revolution. Journal of Nutrition, 133(11), 3907S–3910S.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FAO, & FHI 360. (2016). Minimum dietary diversity for women: A guide for measurement. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Golden, C., Fernald, L., Brashares, J., Rasolofoniaina, B., & Kremen, C. (2011). Benefits of wildlife consumption to child nutrition in a biodiversity hotspot. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112586108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris-Fry, H., Shrestha, N., Costello, A., & Saville, N. M. (2017). Determinants of intra-household food allocation between adults in South Asia—A systematic review. International Journal for Equity in Health. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-017-0603-1.

  • Harris-Fry, H., Paudel, P., Shrestha, N., & Harrison, T., et al. (2018). Status and determinants of intra-household food allocation in rural Nepal. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-017-0063-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ianotti, L., Lutter, C., Stewart, C., & Riofío, C., et al. (2017). Eggs in early complementary feeding and child growth: A randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-3459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jin, M., & Ianotti, L. (2014). Livestock production, animal source food intake, and young child growth: The role of gender for ensuring nutrition impacts. Social Science & Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.01.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, K., Patel, N., Levy, M., & Storeygard, A., et al. (2008). Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jong, J. (2016). Scavenging for protein and micronutrients: Village poultry in Timor-Leste. In Proceedings of the Crawford Fund 2016 Annual Conference. Retrieved January 29, 2018, from https://www.crawfordfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/CF-2016-Conference-Proceedings-Jong.pdf.

  • Malapit, H., & Quisumbing, A. (2014). What dimensions of women’s empowerment in agriculture matter for nutrition in Ghana? Food Policy. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.02.003.

  • McWilliam, A. (2001). Prospects for sacred groves: Valuing lulic forests on Timor. Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology, 2, 89–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Health (MoH). (2015). Timor-Leste food and nutrition survey 2013: Final report 2015. Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Centre for Food and Nutrition. Dili: Timor-Leste Ministry of Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, S., & Allen, L. H. (2003). Nutritional importance of animal source foods. Journal of Nutrition, 133(11 Suppl 2), 3932S–3935S.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Statistics Directorate (NSD), Ministry of Finance, & ICF Macro. (2010). Timor-Leste Demographic and health survey 2009–10. Dili, Timor-Leste: NSD and ICF Macro.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C., Harris, D., & Rogers, L. (2002). Contribution of animal source foods in improving diet quality and function in children in the developing world. Nutrition Research, 22, 193–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OIE. (2016). Timor-Leste country information. World Animal Health Information Database (WAHIS Interface). Retrieved March 22, 2018, from http://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Countryinformation/Animalsituation.

  • República Democrática de Timor-Leste (RDTL). (2016a). National food and nutrition security policy. Dili: Government of Timor-Leste.

    Google Scholar 

  • República Democrática de Timor-Leste (RDTL). (2016b). Timor-Leste Population and housing census 2015. Suco tables—Volume 4 (Agriculture: type of livestock reared). Dili: Government of Timor-Leste.

    Google Scholar 

  • República Democrática de Timor-Leste (RDTL). (2016c). Timor-Leste Population and housing census 2015. Suco tables—Volume 2 (Population by age and sex). Dili: Government of Timor-Leste.

    Google Scholar 

  • República Democrática de Timor-Leste (RDTL). (2016d). Timor-Leste Population and housing census 2015. Suco tables—Volume 2 (Population and household distribution). Dili: Government of Timor-Leste.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruel, M., Alderman, H., & The Maternal and Child Nutrition Study Group. (2013). Nutrition-sensitive interventions and programmes: How can they help to accelerate progress in improving maternal and child nutrition? The Lancet. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60843-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scantlan, J., & Previdelli, A. (2013). Women’s empowerment and childhood malnutrition in Timor-Leste: A mixed-methods study. Portland, Oregon: Mercy Corps.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schönfeldt, H., Pretorius, B., & Hall, N. (2013). The impact of animal source food products on human nutrition and health. South African Journal of Animal Science, 41(3), 394–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shroff, M., Griffiths, P., Adair, L., Suchindran, C., & Bentley, M. (2009). Maternal autonomy is inversely related to child stunting in Andhra Pradesh, India. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 5(1), 64–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shroff, M., Griffiths, P., Suchindran, C., Nagalla, B., et al. (2011). Does maternal autonomy influence feeding practices and infant growth in rural India? Social Science and Medicine, 73(3), 447–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L., Ramakrishnan, U., Ndiaye, A., Haddad, L., & Martorell, R. (2002). The importance of women’s status for child nutrition in developing countries. Research report 131. Washington, DC: International food policy research institute and Department of International Health, Emory University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Traube, E. (1980). Mambai rituals of black and white. In J. Fox (Ed.), The flow of life: Essays on Eastern Indonesia (pp. 290–315). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT) Geographical Information Systems (GIS) Unit. (2007, May 16). Timor-Leste administrative boundaries [map]. 1:300,000. Dili: UNMIT GIS Unit.

    Google Scholar 

  • van den Bold, M., Quisumbing, A., & Gillespie, S. (2013). Women’s empowerment and nutrition: An evidence review (IFPRI Discussion Paper 01294). Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Meulen Rodgers, Y., & Kassens, A. (2018). Women’s asset ownership and children’s nutritional status: Evidence from Papua New Guinea. Social Science and Medicine, 204, 100–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waldron, S., de Paulo Correia, V., Mulik, M., de Rego, A., et al. (2016). Sub-sector analysis of the Timor Leste beef industry. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2008). Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices: Conclusion of a consensus meeting held 6–8 November 2007 in Washington, DC, USA. Part 1: Definitions. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2009). Session 3: Complementary feeding. Infant and young child feeding: Model chapter for textbooks for medical students and allied health professionals. Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK148957/.

  • WHO. (2010a). Nutrition landscape information system (NLIS) country profile indicators: Interpretation guide. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2010b). Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices. Part 2: Measurement. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong, J. T., de Bruyn, J., Bagnol, B., Grieve, H., et al. (2017). Small-scale poultry and food security in resource-poor settings: A review. Global Food Security, 15, 43–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, J. T., Bagnol, B., Grieve, H., da Costa Jong, J. B., Li, M., Alders, R. G. (2018). Factors influencing animal-source food consumption in Timor-Leste. Food Security, 10(3), 741–762.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research would not have been possible without Mario Moreira dos Reis from the Nutrition Department in the Timor-Leste Ministry of Health, field assistant and interpreter Ananias Frederico Benevides from the Livestock and Veterinary Directorate in the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the communities in Timor-Leste that accommodated us and the respondents who kindly offered much of their time and knowledge by participating in research activities. The authors would like to acknowledge the Government of Australia and The University of Sydney for their financial support of this research, as well as the Government of Timor-Leste for their technical and practical support.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Life and Environmental Sciences and Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

    Johanna T. Wong, Brigitte Bagnol & Robyn G. Alders

  2. Department of Anthropology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

    Brigitte Bagnol

  3. International Rural Poultry Centre, Kyeema Foundation, Brisbane, Australia

    Brigitte Bagnol & Robyn G. Alders

  4. International Rural Poultry Centre, Kyeema Foundation, Maputo, Mozambique

    Brigitte Bagnol & Robyn G. Alders

  5. Dili, Timor-Leste

    Heather Grieve

  6. Veterinary and Livestock Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Dili, Timor-Leste

    Joanita Bendita da Costa Jong

  7. School of Public Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

    Mu Li

  8. Centre for Global Health Security, Chatham House, London, UK

    Robyn G. Alders

Authors
  1. Johanna T. Wong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Brigitte Bagnol
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Heather Grieve
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Joanita Bendita da Costa Jong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Mu Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Robyn G. Alders
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Johanna T. Wong .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

    John Connell

  2. Brandon University, Brandon, MB, Canada

    Kristen Lowitt

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Wong, J.T., Bagnol, B., Grieve, H., Jong, J.B.d.C., Li, M., Alders, R.G. (2020). Eating Meat or Eating Money? Factors Influencing Animal-Source Food Consumption in Timor-Leste. In: Connell, J., Lowitt, K. (eds) Food Security in Small Island States. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8256-7_14

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8256-7_14

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-13-8255-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-13-8256-7

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation