Abstract
In 1949, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was established and the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference was convened to formulate the “Common Program” and elect the Central People’s Government Committee of the People’s Republic of China. Mao Zedong then declared the PRC to be founded. He said, “China’s history has opened a new era from now on.” He predicted that “as the high tide of the economic construction arrives, the cultural construction will also usher in its high tide. The era under which Chinese were considered uncivilized has passed and we will appear in the world as a nation with a highly-developed culture.” This signifies China’s formal entry into its era of modernization. For many Western countries this process has took hundreds of years and for Japan it took 70–80 years after the Meiji Restoration. How then should China start its industrialization and modernization? How should it chase after its forerunners? Is it possible for China to become a modernization transcender and inventor?
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Notes
- 1.
Mao Zedong, Cheer for the Great Union of Chinese People (September 30, 1949), collected in Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. 5, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1996, p. 347.
- 2.
Mao Zedong, Chinese People Stand Up from Now On (September 21, 1949), collected in Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. 5, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1996, p. 345.
- 3.
Jeffrey D. Sachs, The Age of Sustainable Development, Columbia University Press, March 3, 2015.
- 4.
In 1949, Zhang Peigang defined industrialization as “a process whereby a series of fundamental production functions undergo continual changes” (Zhang Peigang, Agriculture and Industrialization: Primary Study on Industrialization Problems in an Agricultural Country, Wuhan: Publishing House of Huazhong Institute of Technology, 1984, p. 70). Later, Zhang Peigang defined industrialization as “a process whereby a series of fundamental production functions (or a combination of various forms of the production elements) undergo breakthrough changes (reforms) from a low level to a high level in the national economy” (Zhang Peigang, General Introduction to Development Economy, Vol. 1: Industrial Problems in an Agricultural Country, p. 190, Changsha: Hunan Publishing House, 1991). This represents the original contribution of Chinese scholars to industrialization theories.
- 5.
Hu Angang, China’s Road and China’s Dream, Hangzhou: Zhejiang People’s Publishing House, 2013.
- 6.
The report presented at the 14th National Congress of the CPC in 1992 pointed out that China’s problem of feeding and clothing 1.1 billion people had been solved and China was marching toward becoming a moderately well-off society. See Jiang Zemin, Accelerate Reform and Opening-up and Modernization Construction Pace, as well as Seize Bigger Victory of Socialist Cause with Chinese Characteristics—Report at the 14th National Congress of CPC, October 12, 1992.
- 7.
The report presented at the 16th National Congress of the CPC in 2002 revealed that the people’s standard of living had reached a moderately well-off level overall. However, the moderately well-off level reached at that time was still at a low level, and represented weak and imbalanced development. The report proposed that in the first 20 years of the century, we must gather all our power to construct a moderately well-off society, in all aspects, of a higher level. See Jiang Zemin, Construct a Moderately Well-off Society in All-round Aspects and Create New Layout of the Socialist Cause with Chinese Characteristics—Report at the 16th National Congress of CPC, November 18, 2002.
- 8.
Fight for Mobilizing All Powers to Turn Our Country Into a Great Socialist Country—Study and Publicity Outline of CPC on General Line for Transition Period (Made and Released by the Propaganda Department of CPC Central Committee in December 1953 and approved by the CPC Central Committee), collected in Selected Important Documents since the Founding of the PRC, Vol. 4, Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 2011, pp. 602–603.
- 9.
“The road that the Soviet Union followed (the industrialization of the country) in the past is exactly the example that we should learn from.” Fight for Mobilizing All Powers to Turn Our Country into a Great Socialist Country—Study and Publicity Outline of CPC on General Line for Transition Period (Made and Released by the Propaganda Department of the Central Committee in December 1953 and approved by the CPC Central Committee), collected in Selected Important Documents since the Founding of PRC, Vol. 4, Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 2011, p. 607.
- 10.
The Constitution of the CPC was passed at the 8th National Congress of the CPC. It stated that the mission of the CPC is to carefully develop the national economy, make all efforts to systematically realize rapid national industrialization and to carry out the technological reform of the national economy step by step, so that China may have a strong modernized industry, modernized agriculture, modernized traffic and transportation, and modernized national defense. See Constitution of CPC (passed in the 8th National Congress of the CPC—September 26, 1956).
- 11.
Mao Zedong said that “The United States was founded 180 years ago. It had only 4 million tons of steel 60 years ago. We fell behind more than 60 years. If given 50 or 60 years, we should surpass the United States. This is a kind of responsibility. China has a big population, a large piece of land, rich resources, and followed superior socialism. If China cannot surpass the United States after 50 or 60 years of development, how would the world see China? Then China would be fired from the world! Thus, it was not only probable but absolutely necessary and essential that we surpass the United States.” See Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. 7, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1999, p. 89.
- 12.
Zhou Enlai, Major Tasks to Develop National Economy (December 21, 1964), collected in Selected Works of Zhou Enlai, Vol. 2, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1984, p. 439.
- 13.
Zhou Enlai, March Towards to Grand Objective of Four Modernizations (January 13, 1975), collected in Selected Works of Zhou Enlai, Vol. 2, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1984, p. 479.
- 14.
Constitution of CPC (General Principles) pointed out that “within the century, the Party should lead the people to build China into a great socialist power with agricultural modernization, industrial modernization, national defense modernization, and scientific modernization.” See Constitution of CPC (passed in the 11th National Congress of the CPC on August 18, 1977).
- 15.
This was proposed in the Constitution of the CPC at the 12th National Congress of the CPC: the general task of the Chinese Communist Party was to unite all nations, motivate one’s self, work hard, and gradually modernize industry, agriculture, national defense, and science and technology, and turn China into a socialist country with highly developed civilization and democracy. See Constitution of CPC (passed on September 6, 1982, in the 12th National Congress of the CPC).
- 16.
Hu Yaobang, Create a New Socialist Modernization Construction Situation in All Aspects—Report at the 12th National Congress of the CPC, September 8, 1982.
- 17.
Deng Xiaoping, Opening Speech on the 12th National Congress of the CPC (September 1, 1982), collected in Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Vol. 3, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1993, p. 3.
- 18.
The report presented at the 13th National Congress of the CPC stated that the strategic deployment of Chinese economic construction was generally divided into three steps: the first step was to double the 1980 GNP rate and to have enough food and clothing. This task has been basically completed. The second step was to achieve, by the end of the century, the doubling of GNP and to improve people’s living standards to a moderately well-off level. By the middle of the next century, the third step was to be achieved: to realize per capita GNP equal to that of middle-developed country, for people to lead a rich life, and for modernization to be completed. From there, China was to continually march forward on this basis. See Zhao Ziyang, March Forward Along Socialist Road with Chinese Characteristics—Report at the 13th National Congress of the CPC, October 25, 1987.
- 19.
Constitution of CPC (partially revised on the 16th National Congress of the CPC and passed on November 14, 2002).
- 20.
Jiang Zemin, Build a Moderately Well-off Society and Create New Socialist Cause Situation with Chinese Characteristics in All Aspects—Report at the 16th National Congress of the CPC, November 8, 2002.
- 21.
Decision of the 17th National Congress of the CPC on the 16th Central Committee Report (passed on the 17th National Congress of the CPC on October 21, 2007).
- 22.
Hu Jintao, Unswervingly Adhere to the Socialist Road with Chinese Characteristics While Marching Forward and Strive for Building a Moderately Well-off Society in All Aspects—Report on the 18th National Congress of the CPC, November 8, 2012.
- 23.
Constitution of the CPC (General Principles), “The basic line of the CPC at the primary stage of socialism is: to lead and unite the Chinese nation to focus on economic construction, adhere to four basic principles, insist on reform and opening-up, motivate itself, work hard to start a business, and strive to turn China into a rich, powerful, democratic, civilized, and harmonious socialist modernized country.” See Constitution of CPC (partially revised in the 18th National Congress of the CPC and passed on November 14, 2012).
- 24.
Decision of the Central Committee of the CPC on Several Important Problems in Deepening and Reforming in All Aspects (passed in the third session of the 18th National Congress of the CPC on November 12, 2013).
- 25.
Hu Angang, China’s Road and China’s Dream, Hangzhou: Zhejiang People’s Publishing House, 2013, pp. 89–90.
- 26.
Hu Angang, National Life Cycle and China’s Rising, collected in Teaching and Studies, Issue 1, 2006, pp. 7–17.
- 27.
See Mao Zedong, China’s Revolution and Chinese Communist Party (December 1939), collected in Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. 2, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1991, pp. 626–627.
- 28.
Mao Zedong said, in the past, China was always described by people as a “big empire,” the “sick man of the East,” and with a laggard economy, laggard culture, and bad sanitation, and as a country with poor sporting ability, women with small feet, men with braids, and eunuchs. Mao Zedong, Strengthen Party’s Union and Inherit Party’s Tradition (August 30, 1956), collected in Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. 7, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1999, p. 87.
- 29.
Angus Maddison, Historical Statistics of the World Economy: 1–2008 AD.
- 30.
Angus Maddison, Historical Statistics of the World Economy: 1–2008 AD.
- 31.
[America] Authored by R.R. Pairner, Joel Colton, and Lloyd Kramer. Sun Fusheng et al., trans., A History of the Modern World—to 1870 (10e), Beijing: World Publishing Corporation, 2010, p. 8.
- 32.
Report of HIS Global Insight, American Economic Consulting Organization, March 14, 2011.
- 33.
Edited by the National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Abstract 2015, Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2015, p. 126.
- 34.
Edited by the National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Abstract 2015, Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2015, p. 16.
- 35.
Edited by the National Bureau of Statistics of China, First Fifty Years of New China (1949–1999), Beijing: China Statistics Press, 1999, p. 9.
- 36.
Edited by the National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Abstract 2015, Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2015, p. 156.
- 37.
Database of the World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org.cn/.
- 38.
Edited by the National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Abstract 2015, Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2015, p. 58.
- 39.
Ibid., p. 60.
- 40.
Ibid., p. 150.
- 41.
Data source: WTO Database, quoting from an edition by the National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Abstract 2015, Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2015, p. 176.
- 42.
Edited by National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Abstract 2015, Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2015, p. 96.
- 43.
According to the estimate of International Energy Agency, over 20% of the world’s population has no access to electricity and most of them live in Sub-Saharan Africa, India, and in villages of other developing countries in Asia. International Energy Agency, September 21, 2010.
- 44.
Angus Maddison, Historical Statistics of the World Economy: 1–2008 AD.
- 45.
Energy Development the “12th Five-year Plan,” http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2013-01/23/content_2318554.htm, January 1, 2013.
- 46.
According to the estimates of the World Bank, at present, approximately 1.2 billion of the world’s population does not have access to electricity, accounting for 17% of the world’s total population (7.09 billion). The largest proportion of these people live in India, namely, 306.2 million people (representing 25% of the global population without electricity and 25% of the Indian population). Populations without electricity—Nigeria: 82.40 million; Bangladesh: 63.90 million; Congo: 55.90 million; Tanzania: 38.20 million; Kenya: 31.20 billion; Sudan: 30.90 million; Uganda: 28.50 million; Burma: 24.6 million; Mozambique: 19.9 million; Afghanistan: 18.5 million; North Korea: 19 million; Madagascar: 17.8 million; the Philippines: 15.6 million; and Pakistan: 15 million (Website of the Ministry of Commerce, June 7, 2013).
- 47.
In May 1898, the Qing Regime issued China’s first regulation about patents—Revitalization Technology Reward Regulation. The regulation states that the invention would be protected by the patent for 50, 30, or 10 years, depending on the invention. However, at its essence is an exclusive right and this differs from the meaning of an existing patent right. The regulation was abolished two months later. In 1912, the government of the Republic of China introduced the Award Craft Temporary Regulation. In 1944, the Kuomintang government enacted the Law of Patent. Chinese Patent History (II), Website of State Intellectual Property Office, July 14, 2005.
- 48.
Chinese Patent History (II), Website of State Intellectual Property Office, July 14, 2005.
- 49.
Mao Zedong, Fight for Building a Great Socialist Country, collected in Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. 6, People’s Publishing House, 1999, p. 350.
- 50.
Ye Jianying, Speech on Celebrating the 30th Anniversary of the Foundation of the People’s Republic of China (September 29, 1979), collected in Decisions and Determinations of the Reports and Bulletins of the Congress of Party Representatives and Plenary Session of the Central Committee Since the 3rd Session of the 11th National Congress of the CPC, Beijing: China Fangzheng Press, 2008, p. 52.
- 51.
Li Xiannian, Speech on Central Working Meeting (April 5, 1979), collected in Selected Works of Li Xiannian (1935–1988), Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1989, pp. 356 and 358.
- 52.
Jeffrey D. Sachs, The Age of Sustainable Development, Columbia University Press, March 3, 2015.
- 53.
Jeffrey D. Sachs, The Age of Sustainable Development, Columbia University Press, March 3, 2015.
- 54.
Angus Maddison, Historical Statistics of the World Economy: 1–2008 AD.
- 55.
Angus Maddison, Historical Statistics of the World Economy: 1–2008 AD.
- 56.
Jeffrey D. Sachs, The Age of Sustainable Development, Columbia University Press, March 3, 2015.
- 57.
Xi Jinping commented at the closing ceremony of the first session of the 12th National Congress of the CPC on March 17, 2013: The Chinese nation is a nation with extraordinary creative power. We have created a great Chinese civilization and we can also continually expand and well walk the development road in compliance with Chinese conditions. All nationalities should strengthen their confidence in the socialist theory, socialist road, and socialist system with Chinese characteristics and unswervingly adhere to the correct Chinese road.
- 58.
Comrade Hu Jintao concluded with a description of the “socialist road with Chinese characteristics”: “it means to, under the leadership of the CPC, be rooted in basic national conditions, concentrate on economic construction, uphold the four fundamental principles, adhere to the reform and openness, liberate and develop social productivity, consolidate and improve the socialist system, build a socialist market economy, socialist democratic politics, socialist advanced culture, socialist harmonious society and establish a rich, powerful, democratic, civilized and harmonious socialist modernized country.” See Hu Jintao, Speech on Celebrating the 90th Anniversary of the Foundation of the CPC, July 1, 2011.
- 59.
The underlining is added for emphasis. Hu Jintao, Unswervingly Adhere to Socialist Road with Chinese Characteristics and Fight for Establishing Moderately Well-off Society in All Aspects—Report on the 18th National Congress of the CPC, November 8, 2012.
- 60.
Comrade Hu Jintao pointed out that “to follow the agricultural modernization road with Chinese characteristics is a necessary choice in following the common agricultural development rules of the world but rooted in Chinese conditions. It is the inevitable requirement of planning urban and rural development and coordinating and facilitating industrialization and urbanization, and it is the unavoidable road to building a new socialist society and advancing agricultural sustainable development. … [T]he general idea to facilitate the rural reform and development is to consider the construction of the new socialist society as a strategic task, to follow the agricultural modernization road with Chinese characteristics as the basic direction, and to make the acceleration of forming a new integrated layout of the urban and rural economy a fundamental requirement. It is to insist that industry re-feeds agriculture, the city supports the village and gives more, takes less, and we liberate the countryside and push forward for the sound and rapid development of the agricultural economic society.” See Xinhua Agency, Beijing, January 24, 2009.
- 61.
The report presented at the 16th National Congress of the CPC pointed out that “it remains China’s arduous historical task during the modernization process to follow a new industrialization road, implement a strategy to rejuvenate the country through science and education, and to realize industrialization. Informatization is an inevitable choice for China to accelerate and realize its industrialization and modernization. Please insist on using informatization to drive industrialization, use industrialization to drive informatization, and walk a new industrialization road with significant science and technology content, good economic benefits, low resource consumption, reduced environmental pollution, and human resource advantages.” See Jiang Zemin, Construction Moderately Well-off Society in All Aspects and Create New Socialist Cause with Chinese Characteristics, November 2003.
Comrade Hu Jintao pointed out that China should master scientific development, focus on the main task to make changes to China’s economic development, follow the industrialization laws, and adapt to the changing market requirements. It is also necessary to positively develop a modern industrial system with an optimized development structure, advanced technology, strong safety mechanisms, high value, and with powerful employment capacity according to the new scientific and technological improvement trends. Furthermore, we must enhance the industrial development quality and benefits, strive to transition from a big industrial country to a powerful industrial country, and establish a solid material foundation for building an all-round moderately well-off society and accelerate the advancement of socialist modernization. See Hu Jintao, Speech on Firmly Following New-type Industrialization Road with Chinese Characteristics in Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee and Accelerating Economic Structure Strategic Adjustment in the 33rd Group Study, May 29, 2012.
- 62.
We must uphold the great socialist flag with Chinese characteristics and follow Deng Xiaoping’s theory. Furthermore, we must look to the “Three Representatives” and scientific development strategy for guidance, focus on enhancing the urbanization quality, and accelerate the transition of urbanization development. Furthermore, we must facilitate the urbanization of the agricultural population with human urbanization as the core. It is also important to advance the coordinative development of big cities, middle-sized cities, and small cities via urban agglomeration, promote urban sustainable development via a comprehensive carrying capacity strategy, and realize the potential for urbanization development through system reform innovation. China’s new urbanization road with Chinese characteristics must be followed with its human orientation, synchronization of the four modernizations, optimized design, ecological civilization and cultural inheritance. We must also advance the economic transition as well as improve social harmony and establish a solid foundation for China’s dream of building a moderately well-off society, accelerating socialist modernization, and realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. See National New-type Urbanization Plan (2014–2020).
- 63.
Comrade Hu Jintao pointed out that China should implement its scientific development strategy and properly develop the country through science and education. The country should also be strengthened through talents and sustainable strategies, and China needs to seek independence and innovation, maintain its important scope, support development, and lead the future. It is also important to improve China’s independent creative capacity as the strategic basis to develop science and technology as well as to adjust the industrial structure and implement changes to the development form. We must consider the construction of a creative country as the significant strategic choice for the future and consciously and firmly stick to the independent and creative road with Chinese characteristics. See Hu Jingtao, Speech on the Opening Ceremony of the 14th Congress of Academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the 9th Congress of Academicians of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, June 23, 2008.
- 64.
Xi Jinping emphasized, “in China, the key to developing socialist democratic politics, guaranteeing people’s autonomy of their own affairs, guaranteeing a political life with vitality, stability and order is to adhere to the Party’s leadership, the people’s autonomy in their own affairs and to rule the country by laws and to carry out organic unity. Thus, the system of the people’s congress is a fundamental system. To insist on and improve the system of people’s congress, we must unswervingly insist on the leadership of the CPC, guarantee and develop the people’s autonomy of their own affairs, facilitate governance by law in all aspects and stick to democratic centralism.” See Xi Jinping, Speech on Celebrating the 60th Anniversary of the National People’s Congress, The Xinhua News Agency, Beijing, September 5.
- 65.
Xi Jinping points out that, to facilitate the construction of an ecological civilization, we must implement and carry out the spirit of the 18th National Congress of the CPC in all aspects, follow Deng Xiaoping’s theory, the important idea of the “Three Representatives,” and have a scientific outlook on development. We must also establish an ecological civilization strategy whereby we respect nature, follow nature and protect nature, and adhere to the basic policy of saving resources and protecting the environment. We must insist on saving, protecting and recovering, and make great efforts to establish an ecological strategy, improve the ecological system, and maintain ecological safety. We must optimize the ecological environment and further form a spatial layout, industrial structure, and productive methods and ways of living to reduce resources and protect the environment. See Xi Jinping, Speech at the Sixth Group Study on Ecological Civilization Construction Facilitated by Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the CPC, May 24, 2013.
- 66.
Comrade Hu Jintao points out that we must plan the economic construction and national defense construction as a whole and follow the military and civilian integration development road with Chinese characteristics to unite the country’s enrichment and military strengthening during the comprehensive construction of a moderately well-off society. See Hu Jintao, Speech on Celebrating the 90th Anniversary of the Foundation of the CPC, July 1, 2011.
- 67.
Mao Zedong, Memory of Mr. SunYat-sen (November 12, 1956), collected in Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. 7, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1996, p. 156.
- 68.
Database of the World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org.cn/.
- 69.
Calculating data source: Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallion, “The developing world is poorer than we thought, but no less successful in the fight against poverty,” Policy Research Working Paper Series 4703, The World Bank. http://econ.worldbank.org/povcalnet; World Bank and IMF, Global Monitoring Report 2001: Improving the Odds of Achieving the MDGs; The World Bank. http://econ.worldbank.org/povcalNet, 2008.
- 70.
Calculating Data Source: Data for 1978–2007: World Development Indicator 2013; data for 2007–2012: use IMF data.
- 71.
Hu Anbang and Liu Tao, The Essence of National Great Rejuvenation Is Cultural Rejuvenation—Discuss the Uniqueness of Chinese Modern Culture, collected in People’s Forum: Academic Frontier, Issue 14, 2012, pp. 6–12.
- 72.
Gilbert Rozman and others consider that “in the 19th century, China, as top dog, obviously held a kind of onlooker attitude about the changes in the world around it. The Chinese government looked corrupt and incapable in front of the challenges from relatively modernized countries. In the first half of the 20th century, although China started its reform and attempted to build a stable government that could facilitate scientific and technological development, advance economic growth, and realize the social integration, it lagged behind.” See [America] edited by Gilbert Rozman in chief and trans., “Comparison of Modernization,” Task of the National Social Science Fund of China: Modernization of China, Nanjing: Jiangsu People’s Publishing House, 1988.
- 73.
[America] Authored by R.R. Pairner, Joel Colton, and Lloyd Kramer. Sun Fusheng et al., trans., A History of the Modern World—To 1870 (10e), Beijing: World Publishing Corporation, 2010, pp. 8–9.
- 74.
“Mao Zedong’s Prediction”, Mao Zedong once pointed out at the 7000 Cadres Conference in 1962: “capitalist development has occurred over hundreds of years and the 16th century should not be the starting point. It began in the middle ages. From the 17th century to now, it has been more than 360 years. In our country, I thought we needed more than 100 years to build a powerful socialist economy.” He also pointed out: “compared with capitalism, socialism is superior in many ways. The economic development of our country will be faster than for a capitalist country. It takes more than 300 years to build a capitalist economy. What was wrong with building powerful socialist economy within 50 to 100 years?” See Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. 8, Beijing: People’s Publishing House, pp. 301–302.
- 75.
“Deng Xiaoping’s Prediction”, Deng Xiaoping once stated in a conversation with foreign guests in 1987: “what we should do now is to accelerate our development productivity through reform, adhere to a socialist road, use our practices to prove the socialist superiority, and we need to realize the objective through the efforts of two generations, three generations, or even four generations. By that time, we can really say that socialism is superior to capitalism with facts.” See Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Vol. 3, People’s Publishing House, 1993, p. 256.
- 76.
Xi Jinping, Speech at the Symposium Commemorating the 120th Birthday of Comrade Mao Zedong, December 26, 2013.
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Angang, H. (2020). China’s Path to Modernization (1949–2014). In: Men, H. (eds) On China's Road. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7880-5_3
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