Sri Lanka’s History: Colonialism, Independence and Conflict

Ananthavinayagan, Thamil Venthan

doi:10.1007/978-981-13-7350-3_2

Thamil Venthan Ananthavinayagan³

Part of the book series: International Law and the Global South ((ILGS))

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1 Citations

Abstract

This chapter provides an account of Sri Lanka’s history, beginning with an outlining of the migration of Tamils and Sinhala from India to Sri Lanka and the establishment of the kingdoms in the country. It will then focus on the arrival of the colonial powers in Sri Lanka and the introduction of legal regimes to govern the inhabitants. Three colonial commissions had a profound impact on the country. The Colebrooke-Cameron, Donoughmore and the Soulbury Commissions delineated the legal parameters, created local constitutions within which Sri Lanka would operate. Sir Charles Jeffries affirmed that while Britain was duly considering the lack of its own constitution, for practical reasons the colonial power was very much imposing powers and duties upon the subordinate administrations to control the colonial subjects. Further examination is required to explore the role of colonial policies on ethnicities. Were Sinhala nationalism and Tamil separatism two inevitable consequences of colonial policy?

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Notes

1.
Spencer (1990), p. 3.
2.
Nissan and Stirrat (1990), p. 22.
3.
Deegalle (2006), p. 2.
4.
H. H Wilson, ‘The Relation of History to the Study and Practice of Law’, (1887). Transactions and Reports, Nebraska State Historical Society. Paper 15, p. 17.
5.
Polo (2004) Book 3, Chap. 14.
6.
Farmer (1963), p. 1.
7.
de Silva (1981), p. 1.
8.
Ibid p. 1.
9.
Ibid p. 1; Amarasingham and Bass (2016), p. 7.
10.
de Silva (1981), p. 1; Roberts (2012), pp. 254–260.
11.
de Silva (1981), p. 2; Samaranayake (1991) p. 88; Moorcraft (2012), p. 2.
12.
de Silva (1981), p. 3; Schrikker (2012), pp. 13–17; Bartholomeusz (2002), pp. 54–61; Ibid Samaranayake (1991), p. 88.
13.
Wriggins (1960), p. 13.
14.
Jeffries (1962), p. 2.
15.
Farmer (1963), p. 1; Weiss (2012), p. 14.
16.
de Silva 1981), p. 2; Bartholomeusz (2002) pp. 54–61.
17.
Farmer (1963), p. 9; Weiss (2012), p. 15.
18.
Ibid Farmer (1963), p. 6.
19.
Spencer (1990), p. 3; Roberts (1994), p. 65.
20.
Ibid Spencer (1990), p. 3; Kapferer (1988), p. 35.
21.
Blackburn (2010), pp. 70–78; Jeganathan (2009), p. 113.
22.
Spencer (1990), pp. 5–6; DeVotta (2007), pp. 5–6.
23.
Farmer (1963), p. 6; Ibid DeVotta (2007), pp. 5–6; Kapferer (1988), p. 34.
24.
de Silva (1981), p. 6.
25.
Farmer (1963), p. 6; Stokke (1998), p. 86.
26.
Ibid Farmer (1963), p. 6; Ranjith Bandara and Clement Tisdell, ‘The History and Value of the Elephant in Sri Lankan Society’, University of Queensland, Working Paper No. 133, 2005, pp. 1–2.
27.
Farmer (1963), p. 6; Manoharan (2006), p. 12; Kapferer (1988), 20, p. 34.
28.
Farmer (1963), p. 6; Ibid Kapferer (1988), p. 34.
29.
Ibid Farmer (1963), p. 6.
30.
Ibid Farmer (1963), p. 6; Weiss (2012), p. 15.
31.
Ibid Farmer (1963), p. 7; Kapferer (1988), p. 38.
32.
Ibid Farmer (1963), p. 9; Ibid Kapferer (1988), p. 35; Weiss (2012), p. 15.
33.
Nissan and Stirrat (1990), p. 20; Sivasundaram (2013), p. 8; Kapferer (1988), pp. 50–57.
34.
Jeffries (1962), p. 3; Weiss (2012), p. 14; Moorcraft (2012), p. 2.
35.
de Silva (1981), p. 1.
36.
Jeffries (1962), p. 3; Weiss (2012), p. 17.
37.
Farmer (1963), p. 5; Weiss (2012), p. 14.
38.
Ibid Farmer, p. 5; Tambiah (1986), pp. 81–83.
39.
A more detailed account of historical events can be found in: de Silva (1981), Chaps. 2–9.
40.
Jeffries (1962), p. 5; Tambiah (1986), pp. 81–83.
41.
de Silva (1981), p. 146.
42.
Jeffries (1962), p. 5; Weiss (2012), p. 20.
43.
Farmer (1963), p. 8.
44.
Ibid.
45.
Farmer (1963) p. 8; Weiss (2012), p. 12 and p. 17.
46.
Ibid Farmer (1963) pp. 16–17; Roberts (1994), p. 67.
47.
Wriggins (1960), p. 7.
48.
Ibid Wriggins (1960), p. 12; Jeffries (1962), p. 2.
49.
de Silva (1981), p. 13.
50.
Jeffries (1962), p. 2; Tambiah (1986), pp. 5–9.
51.
de Silva (1981), p. 13.
52.
Ibid de Silva (1981), pp. 13–14.
53.
Jeffries (1962), p. 2.
54.
de Silva (1981), p. 18.
55.
Ibid, de Silva (1981), p. 13; Weiss (2012), p. 15.
56.
Ibid de Silva, p. 13.
57.
Farmer (1963), p. 12.
58.
Ibid Farmer (1963); Kapferer (1988), pp. 57–65.
59.
Ibid Farmer (1963), p. 10.
60.
Ibid Farmer (1963), pp. 10–11; Seneviratne (1999), p. 21; Kapferer (1988), pp. 57–65; Weiss (2012), p. 15.
61.
Bhikku Rahula, History of Buddhism in Ceylon: The Anuradhapura Period, (Colombo: Gunasena, 1956) quoted by E. F. C. Ludowyk, The Story of Ceylon, (London: Faber, 1962), p. 64.
62.
Tambiah (1986), p. 58.
63.
Seneviratne (1999) p. 21.
64.
Foucault (2003), p. 68.
65.
Ibid p. 66.
66.
Gunawardana (1976), pp. 53–62.
67.
Sabaratnam (1990), p. 202.
68.
Weiss (2012), pp. 24–25.
69.
Weiss (2012), pp. 24–25.
70.
Seneviratne (1999), p. 36.
71.
Sivasundaram (2013), p. 334.
72.
Seneviratne (1999), p. 30.
73.
Spencer (2003), p. 10.
74.
Roberts (1994) p. 199.
75.
Weiss (2012), p. 27.
76.
Roberts (1994), p. 208.
77.
Seneviratne (1999), p. 24.
78.
Sriskanda Rajah (2017), p. 3.
79.
Ibid.
80.
Manor (1984), p. 155.
81.
Farmer (1963), p. 11; Tambiah (1986), p. 6.
82.
Ibid Farmer (1963), p. 12; de Silva (1981), p. 14.
83.
de Silva (1981), p. 14; Vaitheespara (2011), p. 302.
84.
Farmer (1963), p. 12.
85.
Wickremeratne (2006), p. 126; Weiss (2012), p. 20.
86.
Obeyesekere (2006), p. 157; another interesting aspect is the fact that one of the ancestors of the later prime minister Srimavo Bandaranaike, a chieftain in the Kandyan kingdom, signed the Kandyan Convention 1815 in Tamil. See also: Weiss (2012), p. 20.
87.
Nissan and Stirrat (1990), p. 23.
88.
Ibid p. 23.
89.
Ibid pp. 23–24.
90.
Farmer (1963), p. 15.
91.
Deegalle (2006), p. 8.
92.
Thamil Venthan Ananthavinayagan, ‘Why Sri Lanka Doesn’t Trust the UN’, online at: <http://thediplomat.com/2016/08/why-sri-lanka-doesnt-trust-the-un/>, last accessed 7th of September 2017.
93.
Ibid.
94.
Farmer (1963), p. 9; Welikale (2015a, b), pp. 529–545.
95.
Farmer (1963), p. 9.
96.
Bartholomeusz (2002), p. 142.
97.
Ibid p. 142.
98.
Jayasuriya (2000), p. 253.
99.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 7.
100.
Ibid p. 8.
101.
Ibid p. 7.
102.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 7.
103.
Jeffries (1962), pp. 2–3.
104.
Farmer (1963), p. 16.
105.
de Silva (1981), p. 147.
106.
Lakshmi Iyer, ‘The Long-term Impact of Colonial Rule: Evidence from India’, online at: <http://web.mit.edu/14.75J/www/iyer.pdf>, last accessed on 25th of September 2016.
107.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 9; Jayawardena (2000), p. 3.
108.
de Silva (1981), p. 148.
109.
Abeyasinghe (1966), p. 2.
110.
Ibid.
111.
de Silva (1981), pp. 148–149; p. 166.
112.
de Silva (1981), p. 161; Jayawardena (2000), pp. 249–250.
113.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 10; Mills (1933), p. 2
114.
Arunachalam (1978), p. 49; Jayawardena (2000), pp. 249–250.
115.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 10.
116.
Ibid p. 10.
117.
Ibid p. 10.
118.
de Silva (1981), p. 184.
119.
de Silva (1981), p. 184.
120.
Ibid de Silva (1981), p. 189; for a detailed discussion: Schrikker (2012), pp. 33–125; Herath (2015), pp. 249–251.
121.
Wriggins (1960), p. 14.
122.
Mills (1933), p. 8.
123.
Wriggins (1960), p. 14.
124.
Jeffries (1962), pp. 13–15.
125.
Wriggins (1960), p. 12.
126.
Ibid Wriggins (1960), p. 14; Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 12; Mills (1933), p. 9.
127.
Wriggins (1960), p. 14; Mills (1933) p. 8.
128.
Ibid Mills (1933), p. 2.
129.
Nissan and Stirrat (1990), p. 27; for a detailed discussion: Schrikker (2012), pp. 129–195.
130.
Jeffries (1962), pp. 15–17.
131.
Wickramasinghe (1988) p. 27; Mills (1933), p. 41.
132.
Jeffries (1962) p. 20; Ibid Mills, pp. 47–55.
133.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 26; Schrikker (2012), pp. 177–208.
134.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 27; Weiss (2012), p. 20.
135.
Nissan and Stirrat (1990) p. 27; Mills (1993), pp. 251–258.
136.
Chris Neubert, ‘Biopower, Social Control, and Resistance in Sri Lanka’s Plantations’, in: U.S. Fulbright Scholar ICES “Ethical Futures”, Conference 1st of June 2013, p. 20.
137.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 27; Schrikker (2012), pp. 160–178.
138.
Nissan and Stirrat (1990), p. 27; Coperehewa (2011), pp. 33–39; DeVotta (2005), p. 149.
139.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 27.
140.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 27; Mills (1933), pp. 258–266.
141.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 28.
142.
Jeffries (1962), p. 24; Schrikker (2012), pp. 33–125.
143.
Ibid Jeffries (1962), p. 24.
144.
Ibid Jeffries (1962), pp. 23–24.
145.
Sir Jeffries (1962), p. 24.
146.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 29.
147.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 29; Mills, (1933), pp. 65–67.
148.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 29.
149.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 29.
150.
Wriggins (1960) p. 82.
151.
Samaranayake (1991), pp. 77–78.
152.
Samaranayake (1991), pp. 77–78; Asange Welikale (2016a, b), p. 45
153.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 29.
154.
Ibid p. 41.
155.
Ismael (2005), pp. 116–117.
156.
Wriggins (1960), p. 85.
157.
de Silva (1981), p. 518.
158.
Wriggins (1960), p. 85; Kumarasingham (2013), pp. 174–175.
159.
Ibid Wriggins (1960), p. 86; Ibid Kumarasingham (2013), p. 121; Bandarage (2009), p. 36.
160.
Ibid Wriggins (1960), p. 85; Mill (1933), p. 269; Ibid Bandarage (2009), p. 36.
161.
Ibid Wriggins (1960), p. 86; Kumarasingham (2013), p. 121.
162.
Ibid Wriggins (1960), p. 86.
163.
Ibid Wriggins (1960) p. 86; Mills (1933), p. 270.
164.
Ibid Wriggins (1960), p. 87.
165.
Farmer (1963), p. 87; Mills (1933), pp. 270–271.
166.
Wriggins (1960), p. 88; Jupp (1978), pp. 1–2.
167.
Ibid Wriggins (1960), p. 89.
168.
Farmer (1963), p. 86.
169.
Jeffries (1962), p. 66.
170.
Farmer (1963), p. 56.
171.
Ibid Farmer (1963), p. 57; Kumarasingham (2013), p. 141.
172.
Edrisinha and Selvakumaran (2000), p. 196; Kumarasingham (2013), p. 123.
173.
Ibid.
174.
Parkinson (2016), p. 42.
175.
Ibid p. 43.
176.
Ceylon Constitution Order in Council 1946, online at: <http://tamilnation.co/srilankalaws/46constitution.htm>, last accessed 18th of July 2016.
177.
Shirani A. Bandaranayake, ‘The Courts in implementing human rights: The Sri Lankan experience’, online at: <http://www.island.lk/2003/08/22/featur02.html>, last accessed 30th of January 2017; Government of Ireland Act 1920, online at: <http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1920/67/pdfs/ukpga_19200067_en.pdf>, last accessed 30th of January 2017.
178.
Welikale (2016a, b), p. 123.
179.
Wriggins (1960), p. 93.
180.
Jeffries (1962), pp. 128–129.
181.
Welikale (2016a, b), p.123.
182.
Ceylon Independence Order.
183.
Kumarasingham (2013), pp. 118–119.
184.
Ibid p. 119.
185.
Tambiah (1986), p. 69.
186.
Sriskanda Rajah (2017), p. 6.
187.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 212.
188.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 212; Jupp (1978), pp. 6–7.
189.
de Silva (1981), p. 604.
190.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 213; Jupp (1978), pp. 6–7.
191.
de Silva (1981), p. 605; Jupp (1978), pp. 4–5; Winslow (2004), p. 32.
192.
Ollapally (2008), p. 147; Bandarage (2009), p. 38.
193.
de Silva (1981), p. 606.
194.
Kumarasingham (2013), p. 116.
195.
Jayawardena (2000), p. 193.
196.
Hyndman (1988), p. 67.
197.
Weiss (2012), p.33.
198.
Kumarasingham (2013), pp. 131, 149.
199.
Jupp (1978) pp. 7–9.
200.
de Silva (2012), p. 626.
201.
Ollapally (2008), p. 154; Bandarage (2009), p. 42.
202.
Ibid Ollapally (2008), p. 157; de Silva (1981), p. 628; Kumarasingham (2013), p. 160; Tambiah (1986), p. 171.
203.
Roberts (1994), p. 297.
204.
Tambiah (1986), p. 133; Winslow (2004), p. 34.
205.
DeVotta (2005) p. 148; Ismael (2005), p. 71.
206.
Kumarasingham (2013), p. 189.
207.
International Crisis Group, ‘Sri Lanka, Sinhala Nationalism and the elusive consensus, Executive Summary’, Asia Report No. 141, 7th of November 2007, pp. 3–7.
208.
Kumarasingham (2013), p. 190; Bandarage (2009), p. 42.
209.
de Silva (1981), p. 626; Farmer (1963), p. 36; International Crisis Group (2007), pp. 15–18; DeVotta (2005), pp. 149–150; Ollapally (2008), p. 156.
210.
Daily Mirror, ‘My father brought in Sinhala only Bill to give country back its identity: CBK’, online at: <http://www.dailymirror.lk/114681/My-father-brought-in-Sinhala-only-Bill-to-give-#sthash.eZZowoID.dpuf>, last accessed 25th of August 2016.
211.
Bandara (2000), p. 121.
212.
Gombrich (2006), p. 26.
213.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 268.
214.
Farmer (1963), p. 66; Samaranayake (1991), p. 148; DeVotta (2005), p. 148.
215.
Ibid Farmer (1963), p. 66; Bandarage (2009), p. 47.
216.
Welikale (2015a, b), p. 331.
217.
Farmer (1963), p. 67.
218.
Fearon and Laitin (2011), p. 202; Bandarage (2009), p. 47.
219.
Land Development Ordinance of 1935, online at: <http://faolex.fao.org/cgi-bin/faolex.exe?rec_id=009650&database=faolex&search_type=link&table=result&lang=eng&format_name=@ERALL>, last accessed 31st of July 2014.
220.
Athithan Jayapalan, ‘Development in Sri Lanka and the structural Genocide of the Eelam Tamils’, online at: <http://www.jdslanka.org/index.php/analysis-reviews/reflections/450-development-in-sri-lanka-and-the-structural-genocide-on-the-eelam-tamils>, last accessed 31st of July 2014.
221.
Anuradha Mittal, ‘The Long Shadow of War, The struggle for justice in postwar Sri Lanka’, Oakland Institute, 2014–2015, p. 20, online at: <https://www.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/OI_The_Long_Shadow_of_War_0.pdf>, last accessed 16th of February 2018; Bandarage (2009), pp. 47–48
222.
Ibid.
223.
Bandarage (2009), pp. 47–48.
224.
Ibid pp. 47–48.
225.
Fearon and Latin (2011), p. 202.
226.
Farmer (1963), p. 36; Edrisinha (2015), p. 293.
227.
Ibid Edrinsinha (2015), p. 293.
228.
Farmer (1963), p. 36; Bandarage (2009), p. 49; Kumarasingham (2013), pp. 197–199.
229.
Farmer (1963), p. 37.
230.
Ollapally (2008), p. 155.
231.
Kumarasingham (2013), p. 199; DeVotta (2005), p. 141.
232.
Edrinsinha (2015), p. 293.
233.
Bandara (2000), p. 121; Sriskanda Rajah (2017), pp. 33–34.
234.
Welikale (2016a, b), p. 10.
235.
Farmer (1963), p. 36.
236.
Kumarasingham (2013), p. 200.
237.
Sriskanda Rajah (2017), pp. 33–35.
238.
Sabaratnam (1990), p. 213.
239.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 215.
240.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 215; Bandarage (2009), pp. 56–57.
241.
World Bank, ‘Economic Development of Ceylon’, online at <http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2002/11/16/000178830_98101911094760/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf>, last accessed 19th of July 2016.
242.
de Silva (1981), p. 663; Samaranayake (1991), pp. 137–138.
243.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 235; Bandarage (2009), pp. 56–57.
244.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 235.
245.
de Silva (1981), p. 663; M. S. M. Ayub, ‘The 1971 insurrection in retrospect’, online at: <http://www.dailymirror.lk/108026/The-insurrection-in-retrospect, last accessed 21st of June 2017; Laksiri Fernando, ‘April 1971 JVP Uprising: Not To Make The Same Mistakes’, online at: https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/April-1971-jvp-uprising-not-to-make-the-same-mistakes>, last accessed 21st of June 2017.
246.
de Silva (1981), p. 663; Samaranayake (1991), pp. 137–138; Bandarage (2009), pp. 56–57.
247.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 268; Jupp (1978), pp. 319–321.
248.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), pp. 235, 268; de Silva (1988) p. 668; Sabaratnam (1990), p. 213.
249.
Laksiri Fernando, ‘The Insurrection that Turned Sri Lanka’s Political Culture Violent’, in: Asian Tribune, online at <http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/04/04/insurrection-turned-sri-lankE28099s-political-culture-violent>, last accessed 19th of July 2016.
250.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 248.
251.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988) p. 248; Weiss (2012), pp. 45–46.
252.
Sriskanda Rajah (2017), pp. 35–36.
253.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 249; Weiss (2012), pp. 45–46.
254.
Ibid Weiss (2012), xx.
255.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 278; Bandarage (2009), pp. 96–97.
256.
Ollapally (2008), p. 160.
257.
Gombrich (2006), p. 23; Ibid Ollapally (2008), p. 160.
258.
For a more detailed account of the Tamil struggle: Wickramasinghe (1988), pp. 252–301.
259.
Ollapally (2008), p. 168; “[T]he 6th Amendment outlawed separatism and ended in TULF members forfeiting their seats. The crackdown on legitimate political dissent increased; leftist parties and opposition papers were banned and presses sealed under the emergency regulations.” Furthermore: Paul Sieghardt, Sri Lanka. A Mounting Tragedy of Errors, (London: Henry Ling Ltd, 1984), online at: <http://icj.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/1984/03/Sri-Lanka-mounting-tragedy-of-errors-fact-finding-mission-report-1984-eng.pdf>, last accessed 25th of June 2016.
260.
Wickramasinghe (1988) p. 279; Weiss (2012), p. 49.
261.
DeVotta (2009), p. 1027; Bandarage (2009), p. 94.
262.
Ibid DeVotta (2009), p. 1022.
263.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 278.
264.
DeVotta (2011), pp. 131–133; Bandarage (2009), p. 97; Moorcraft (2012), p. 13.
265.
Bandarage (2009), p. 97.
266.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 280; The Vaddukoddai Resolution, essentially, was based on four key recognitions: 1. Recognition of the Tamil in the north and east, 2. Recognition of a creation of a secular, socialist, free and sovereign Tamil Nation 3. Recognition to exist as a separate self-governing entity and 4. Recognition for a genuine call for a Tamil nation and its youth to struggle for Nation a sovereign state, see for further information: Vaddukoddai Resolution, online at <http://www.sangam.org/FB_HIST_DOCS/vaddukod.htm>, last accessed 25th of June 2017; Asange Welikale, ‘Sri Lanka, A Case Study’, online at: <http://www.britac.ac.uk/sites/default/files/SriLanka_0.pdf>, last accessed 25th of June 2017.
267.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 280; Edrinsinha, supra note 306, p. 301.
268.
Ollapally (2008), p. 158.
269.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 288; Bandarage (2009), p. 97.
270.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 280; Sabaratnam (1990), p. 208.
271.
Wickramasinghe (1981), p. 285; Weiss (2012), pp. 64–76.
272.
Manor (1984), p. 53, pp. 76–83, pp. 137–139; Little (1999), p. 51.
273.
Ibid Manor (1984), pp. 137–138.
274.
Ibid Manor (1984), pp. 137–138.
275.
Ibid Manor (1984), pp. 137–138.
276.
DeVotta (2009), p. 1022.
277.
Ibid DeVotta (2009), p. 1022.
278.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 289.
279.
Manor (1984), pp. 137–138; Salter (2015), p. 13; Sriskanda Rajah (2017), p. 59.
280.
Ibid Salter (2015), p. 13.
281.
BBC News Asia, ‘Remembering Sri Lanka’s Black July,’ online at: <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23402727>, last accessed 6th of May 2014; Bandarage (2009), p. 105.
282.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 286; Ibid Bandarage (2009), pp. 103–109.
283.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 286.
284.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 286; Tambiah (1986), p. 22.
285.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 286; Gombrich (2006), p. 23.
286.
Sriskanda Rajah (2017), p. 64.
287.
Ollapally (2008), p. 169.
288.
13th Amendment to the Sri Lankan Constitution, online at: <http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/shrilanka/document/actsandordinance/13th_amendment.pdf>, last accessed 25th of June 2017.
289.
Bandarage (2009), p. 132; Weiss (2012), pp. 81–83.
290.
Moorcraft (2012), pp. 22–23.
291.
Höglund and Svensson (2007), p. 175.
292.
Ibid p. 176.
293.
Gunnar Sørbø et al. (2011), p. 80.
294.
Ollapally (2008), p. 173; Bandarage (2009), pp. 181–185.
295.
Höglund and Svensson (2007), p. 185.
296.
Ollapally (2008), p. 175; Bandarage (2009), pp. 188–189.
297.
Ibid.
298.
President Kumaratunga’s speech on the 21st Anniversary of ‘Black July’, accessed at: <http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/shrilanka/document/papers/BlackJuly2004.htm>, last accessed 6th of May 2014.
299.
Kurtz and Jaganathan (2016), p. 95.
300.
Ibid Kurtz and Jaganathan, (2016), p. 103.
301.
President’s speech to Parliament on the defeat of LTTE, online at: <http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/shrilanka/document/papers/president_speech_parliament_defeatofLTTE.htm>, last accessed 19th of June 2017.
302.
Statement by President Maithripala Sirisena, General Debate at the 70th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, p. 2, September 30th, 2015.
303.
Daily Mirror, SL earns over USD 161mn from UN peacekeeping, online at: <http://www.dailymirror.lk/article/SL-earns-over-USD-mn-from-UN-peacekeeping-148626.html>, last visited 29th of Sep 2018.
304.
United Nations in Sri Lanka, online at: <http://lk.one.un.org/7060/en/sri-lankan-contribution-to-united-nations-peacekeeping>, last visited 29th of Sep 2018.
305.
Goulding (1993), p. 452.
306.
“Certain expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter)”, Advisory Opinion of 20 July 1962: I. C. J. Reports 1962, p. 164.
307.
Goulding (1993), p. 454.
308.
Sasikumar (2010), p. 627.
309.
Gunewardene (1991), p. 220.
310.
United Nations, ‘The Secretary-General’s Internal Review Panel’, November 2012, fn. 77, online: <http://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/Sri_Lanka/The_Internal_Review_Panel_report_on_Sri_Lanka.pdf>, accessed 6 August 2018.
311.
Avezov (2014), p. 269.
312.
Wriggins (1960), p. 14; Jayawardena (2000), p. 232.
313.
Wriggins (1960), p. 14; Jayawardena (2000), p. 287.
314.
de Silva (1981), pp. 181–183.
315.
Ibid, de Silva (1981), pp. 175–182; Mills (1933), p. 8.
316.
Ibid de Silva (1981), pp. 175–182.
317.
Wickramasinghe (1981), pp. 24–25; Thamil Venthan Ananthavinayagan, ‘Sri Lanka: Legal Research and Legal System’, online at: <http://www.nyulawglobal.org/Globalex/Sri_Lanka1.html>, last accessed 6th of November 2016.
318.
Wriggins (1960), p. 14; Jayawardena (2000), p. 235.
319.
Ibid Wriggins (1960), p. 14.
320.
Ibid; Jayawardena (2000), p. 216.
321.
Wriggins (1960), p. 14.
322.
Ibid.
323.
Farmer (1963), p. 16.
324.
Ibid.
325.
Clarance (2007), p. 31.
326.
Manoharan (1987), pp. 3–4.
327.
Ibid Manoharan (1987), pp. 3–4.
328.
Ibid Manoharan (1987), p. 30
329.
Clarance (2007), p. 21; Coperehewa (2011), p. 49.
330.
Ibid Clarance (2007), p. 31.
331.
Weiss (2012), p. 20.
332.
Clarance (2007), p. 32.
333.
Weiss (2012), p. 20; Bandarage (2009), p. 31.
334.
Clarance (2007), 395.
335.
Ibid Clarance (2007), p. 395.
336.
Ibid Clarance (2007), p.395; Jayawardena (2000), p. 196.
337.
Ibid Clarance (2007).
338.
Ibid Clarance (2007) p. 46; Bandarage (2009), p. 30.
339.
Ibid Clarance (2007), p. 32; Ibid Bandarage (2009), p. 36.
340.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 71.
341.
Kumarasingham (2013), pp. 171–172.
342.
Ibid Kumarasingham (2013), p. 175.
343.
Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 44.
344.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p. 45.
345.
Ibid Wickramasinghe (1988), p.45.
346.
Jayawardena (2000), p. 357.
347.
Ismael (2005) p. 117; Fernando (2015), p. 358.
348.
Welikale (2016a, b), p. 47.
349.
Kumarasingham (2013), p. 129.
350.
Ibid Kumarasingham (2013), p. 124.
351.
Ibid Kumarasingham (2013), pp. 122, 136.
352.
Weiss (2012), p. 28.
353.
Jayawardena (2000), p. 349.
354.
Ibid Jayawardena (2000), p. 350.
355.
Ibid Jayawardena (2000), p. 350.
356.
Farmer (1963), Foreword.
357.
Kumarasingham (2013), p. 177.
358.
Ibid.
359.
Ibid p. 181.
360.
Ibid p. 181.
361.
Jayadeva Uyungoda, ‘Questions of Sri Lanka’s Minority Rights’, International Centre for Ethnic Studies, 2001, p. 38; Little (1999), p. 49.
362.
Parkinson (2016), p. 38.
363.
Tambiah (1986), p. 68.
364.
Ibid.
365.
Sashtri (2001), p. 1.
366.
Sriskandah Rajah (2017), p. 32.
367.
Weiss (2012), p. 49.
368.
Ibid Weiss (2012), p. xx.
369.
Gamburd (2004), p. 154.
370.
Ibid Gamburd (2004), p. 154.
371.
Weiss (2012), p. xxi.
372.
Ibid Weiss (2012), p. 49.
373.
Nissan and Stirrat (1990), p. 39.
374.
Kumarasingham (2013), p. 131.
375.
Nissan and Stirrat (1990), p. 34.
376.
Jayawardena (2000), p. 357.
377.
Marasinghe (1994), p. 99.
378.
Jayawardena (2000), p. 11.
379.
Ibid Jayawardena (2000), p. 11.
380.
Udagama (2015), p. 292.
381.
Edrisinha and Selvakkummaran (2000), p. 96.
382.
Wilson (1999), Foreword.
383.
Sriskanda Rajah (2017), p. 44.
384.
de Silva (1981), p. 629.
385.
Gombrich (2006), p. 28.
386.
Report of the SCG Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka, 31st of March, 2011, p. 7, online at: <www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/Sri_Lanka/POE_Report_Full.pdf>, last accessed 19th of July 2016.
387.
Spencer (1990), p. 3.
388.
Indrapala (2007).
389.
Raghavan (2016), p.105.
390.
Jeffries (1962), p. 2.
391.
Feinstein International Centre, ‘Inhumanity and Humanitarian Action: Protection Failures in Sri Lanka,’ p. 4, online at: <http://fic.tufts.edu/assets/Inhumanity-and-Humanitarian-Action_9-15-2014.pdf>, last accessed 19th of July 2016.
392.
Bandarage (2009), p. 17.
393.
Ibid Bandarage (2009), p. 27.
394.
Jeffries (1962), p.3.
395.
Kumarasingham (2013), p. 137.

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Ananthavinayagan, T.V. (2019). Sri Lanka’s History: Colonialism, Independence and Conflict. In: Sri Lanka, Human Rights and the United Nations. International Law and the Global South. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7350-3_2

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