Abstract
Another aim of this research was to examine the kind of justifications the older participants use to support their tolerant stance. How tolerance is justified is very rarely examined in the psychological literature. However, as suggested earlier justifications offer an understanding of how tolerance is conceptualised as well as providing insight about ways tolerance can be promoted and protected. How younger students aged between six and seven justified their choices was reviewed in Chap. 4. This chapter deals with the responses of older participants between the ages of 11 and 25 in Australia depending on the specific study in question and nine to 24 in the Israeli study. Based on the research conducted about the kind of justifications used to support tolerance and intolerance, a key set of beliefs that are implicated in tolerance and acceptance have emerged which are more sophisticated than those the young children used. They are fairness (Justice, equity), empathy and reason/logic. In addition, the responses of adults with the average age of 30 years also influenced the overall findings.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Applebaum, B. (2001). Raising awareness of dominance: Does recognising dominance mean one has to dismiss the values of the dominant group? Journal of Moral Education, 30(1), 55–70.
Avery, P. G. (1988). Political tolerance among adolescents. Theory and Research in Social Education, 16, 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.1988.10505564.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2011). The Evolution and diagnosis of empathy. The Evolutionary Review, 2(1), 55–57.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2014). Against empathy (Forum). Boston Review, 39(5), 25–25.
Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The Empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JADD.0000022607.19833.00.
Batson, C. D. (2008). Empathy-induced altruistic motivation. Paper presented at the Inaugural Herzliya Symposium on Prosocial Motives, Emotions and Behvior, March 24–27, Herzliya, Israel.
Batson, C. D., Chang, J., Orr, R., & Rowland, J. (2002). Empathy, attitudes, and action: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group motivate one to help the group? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1656–1666. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616702237647.
Breslin, A. (1982). Tolerance and moral reasoning among adolescents in Ireland. Journal of Moral Education, 11(2), 112–27.
Bussey, K., Fitzpatrick, S., & Raman, A. (2015). The role of moral disengagement and self-efficacy in cyberbullying. Journal of School Violence, 14(1), 30–46.
Butrus, N., & Witenberg, R. T. (2015). Some personality predictors of tolerance to human diversity: The roles of openness, agreeableness, and empathy. Australian Psychologist, 48, 290–298 (Published on line in 2013). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.17429544.2012.00081.x.
Chung-Voon, S. (2002). Developmental differences in racial tolerance from childhood to early adulthood: An investigation of racial tolerance in 6–7 year old children. Unpublished Honours thesis, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Colby, A., & Damon, W. (1995). The development of extraordinary moral commitment. In M. Killen & D. Hart (Eds.), Morality in everyday life: Developmental perspectives (pp. 283–313). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Davis, M. H. (1983a). The effects of dispositional empathy on emotional reactions and helping: A multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality, 51, 167–184.
Davis, M. H. (1983b). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 113–126.
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Chicago Ill D. C. Heath.
Duxbury, N. (2009). Golden rule reasoning, moral judgment, and the law. Notre Dame law Review, 84, 1529–1605.
Eisenberg, N., Carlo, G., Murphy, B., & Van Court, P. (1995). Prosocial development in late adolescence: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 66, 1179–1197.
Fiske, A. P. (1991). Structures of social life: The four elementary forms of human relations. New York: Free Press.
Gallese, V. (2001). The SD manifold hypothesis from mirror neurons to empathy. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 8, 33–50.
Gazzola, V., Aziz-Zadeh, L., & Keysers, C. (2006). Empathy and the somatotopic auditory mirror systems in human. Current Biology, 16, 1824–1829.
Gerson, M. W., & Neilson, L. (2014). The importance of identity development, principled moral reasoning, and empathy as predictors of openness to diversity in emerging adults. SAGE Open, 4(4), 1–11.
Gilligan, C. (1983). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Gilligan, C., & Attanucci, J. (1988). Two moral orientations: Gender differences and similarities. Merrill-Palmer quarterly, 34(3), 223–237. https://doi.org/10.2307/23086381.
Goldman, A. I. (2002). Social routes to belief and knowledge (pp. 164–181). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gu, X., Gao, Z., Wang, X., Liu, X., Knight, R. T., & Hof, P. R.,Fan, J. (2012). Anterior insular cortex is necessary for empathetic pain perception. Brain, 135, 9, 2726–2735.
Haidt, J. (2013). The righteous mind. London, UK: Penguin Books.
Hamlin, J., Wynn, K., & Bloom, P. (2007). Social evaluation by preverbal infants. Nature, 450, 557–559.
Helwig, C. C. (1998). Children’s conception of fair government and freedom of speech. Child Development, 69, 518–531.
Hoffman, M. L. (1997). Varieties of empathy-based guilt. In J. Bybee (Ed.), Guilt in children (pp. 91–112). New York: Academic Press.
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hoffman, M. L. (2014). Empathy, justice and social change. In H. Maibom (Ed.), Empathy and morality (pp. 71–96). New York: Oxford University Press.
Hogan, L. (2002). An examination of racial tolerance in 6–7 years old children: The influence of young children’s thinking patterns and underlying beliefs. Unpublished Honour’s Thesis, The University of Melbourne, Australia.
Hume (1738/1968). A treatise of human nature. Cambridge MA: Belknap Press, Harvard University.
Jacoboni, M. (2009). Imitation, empathy and mirror neurons. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 653–670.
Jaffe, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2000). Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126(5), 703–726.
Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2006). Examining the relationship between low empathy and bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1002/(ISSN)1098-2337.
Kohlberg, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development: Essays on moral development (Vol. 1). San Francisco: Harper and Row.
Kohlberg, L. (1984). The philosophy of moral development: Essays on moral development (Vol. 2). San Francisco: Harper and Row.
Kokkinos, C. M., & Kipritsi, E. (2018). Bullying, moral disengagement and empathy: Exploring the links among early adolescents. Educational Psychology, 8(4), 535–552. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2017.1363376.
Korol, L. (2017). Is the association between multicultural personality and ethnic tolerance explained by cross-croup friendship? The Journal of General Psychology, 144(4), 264–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.2017.1374118.
Korol, L., Gonçalves, G., & Cabral, M. (2016). The impact of multicultural personality on tolerance of diversity in a sample of Portuguese university students. Revista Psicologia, Teoria e Prática, 18(2), 57–74.
Kuhn, D. (1988). Cognitive development. In M. H. Bornstein & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kuhn, D. (1991). The skills of argument. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kuhn, D. (2002). What is scientific thinking, and how does it develop? In U. Goswami (Ed.), Blackwell handbook of childhood cognitive development (pp. 371–393). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Marcus, G. E., Sullivan, J. L., Thiess-Morse, E., & Stevens, D. (2005). Affective intelligence and political cognition: The impact on extrinsic anxiety on the formation of political tolerance judgments. Political Psychology, 26(6), 949–963.
Marcus, G. E., Sullivan, J. L., Thiess-Morse, E., & Wood, S. (1995). With malice towards some: How people make civil liberties judgments. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mill, J. S. (1859/1978). On liberty. In E. Rapport (Ed.). Indianapolis, USA: Hackett publishing.
Moll, J., & de Oliveira-Souza, R. (2007). Moral judgments, emotions and the utilitarian brain. Trend in Cognitive Science, 11(8), 319–321.
Neale, C. (2002). The role of reflective judgments and empathy in reflective racial tolerance among young adults. Unpublished honours thesis. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: University of Melbourne.
Nesdale, D., De Vries Robbe, M., & van Oudenhoven, J. P. (2012). Intercultural effectiveness, authoritarianism, and ethnic prejudice. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42(5), 1173–1191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00882.x.
Piaget, J, (1932/1965). The moral judgement of the child. New York: Free Press.
Pornari, C. D., & Wood, J. (2010). Peer and cyber aggression in secondary school students: The role of moral disengagement, hostile attribution bias, and outcome expectancies. Aggressive Behavior, 36, 81–94. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20336.
Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rawls, J. (2001). Justice and fairness: A restatement. In E. Kelly (Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, Harvard University press.
Robson, C., & Witenberg, R. T. (2013). The influence of moral disengagement, morally based self-esteem, age, and gender on traditional bullying and cyberbullying. Journal of School Violence, 12(2), 211–231.
Roga, C, M. (2006). Understanding the cognitive underpinning of acceptance of others: Mental models of tolerance. Unpublished honours thesis, Australia Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia.
Schmitt, M., Gollwitzer, M., Maes, J., & Arbach, D. (2005). Justice sensitivity. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 21, 202–211.
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content of structure and values: Theoretical advance and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 1–65). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Selman, R., & Byrne, D. (1974). A structural-developmental analysis of levels of role-taking in middle childhood. Child Development, 45, 803–806.
Singer, T. (2006). The neuronal basis and ontogeny of empathy and mind reading; Review of the literature and implication for future research. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 3, 855–863.
Skoe, E. A., Eisenberg, N., & Cumberland, A. (2002). The role of reported emotions in real-life and hypothetical moral dilemmas. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(7), 962–973.
Thomas, T., & Witenberg, R. T. (2004). Love thy neighbour; racial tolerance among young Australians. Melbourne, Australia: The Australian Multicultural Foundation.
Vogt, W. P. (1997). Tolerance and education: Learning to live with diversity and difference. CA: Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications.
Wagner, J. (1986). Political tolerance and stages of moral development: A conceptual and empirical alternative. Political Behaviour, 8, 45–80.
Walker, L. J. (1984). Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning: A critical review. Child Development, 55(3), 677–691.
Wattles, J. (1996). The golden rule. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Walker, L. J. (2006). Gender and morality. In M. Killen & J. G. Smetana (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (pp. 93–115). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Wark, E. A., Eisenberg, N., & Cumberland, A. (2002). The role of reported emotions in real-life and hypothetical moral dilemmas. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(7), 962–973.
Wark, G. R., & Krebs, D. L. (2000). The construction of moral dilemmas in everyday life. Journal of Moral Education, 24, 1, 5–21. http://theconversation.com/tolerance-is-more-than-putting-up-with-things-its-a-moral-virtue-31507.
Witenberg, R. T. (2000). Do unto others: Towards understanding racial tolerance and acceptance. Journal of College and Character. [On-Line], 1. Available online at: http://www.collegevalues.org.
Witenberg, R. T. (2002a). Reflective racial tolerance and its development in children, adolescents and young adults: Age related difference and context effects. Journal of Research in Education, 12(1), 67–79.
Witenberg, R. T. (2002b). Profiles of reflective racial tolerance and their relationship with justifications. Paper presented at the 32nd Annual Meeting of the Jean Piaget Society, Philadelphia, PA.
Witenberg, R. T. (2004). The subordination of racial tolerance to freedom of speech: Some consideration for education. Australian Psychologist, 39(2), 114–117.
Witenberg, R. T. (2007). The moral dimension of children’s and adolescents’ conceptualization of tolerance to human diversity. Journal of Moral Education, 36, 433–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240701688002.
Witenberg, R. T., Cinamon, G., & Iram, Y. (2003). Contextual and age related differences about reflective tolerance towards Ethiopians, Russians and Israelis: The case of Israel. Monograph published by The Centre for Education for Human Values and Tolerance: Tel Aviv, Bar Ilan University.
Witenberg, R. T., & McDowall, J. (2001). In favour of tolerance: How young adolescents justify their stance about racial tolerance. Paper presented at The 36th Annual Conference, The Australian Psychological Society, Adelaide, South Australia.
Witenberg, R. T, & Thomas, T. (2006). The conceptualization, development and measurement of racial tolerance. Symposium on prejudice, discrimination and tolerance 19th Biennial Meeting of the International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development (ISSBD)Melbourne, July 2–6, 2006.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Witenberg, R.T. (2019). More About Tolerance Justifications. In: The Psychology of Tolerance. SpringerBriefs in Psychology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3789-5_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3789-5_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-3788-8
Online ISBN: 978-981-13-3789-5
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)