Abstract
As we have seen thus far, the oscillation of the first laser was achieved by Maiman from Hughes in California in 1960. After that, various types of lasers were developed one after another. By 1962, four research groups in the U.S. achieved laser oscillation using the first laser diode almost simultaneously. However, this early laser diode employed pulse oscillation at liquid nitrogen temperature. If the laser could be operated only at liquid nitrogen temperature with pulse oscillation, the practical application of the laser would have remained seriously limited. Therefore, firms, universities, and research institutes competed to create a viable continuous wave operation of the laser diode at room temperature.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Panish, M. B., I. Hayashi, and S. Sumski (1970): “Double-Heterostructure Injection Lasers with Room-Temperature Thresholds as Low as 2300 a/Cm2,” Applied Physics Letters, 16, 326–327.
- 2.
Hayashi Izuo, “Double Heterostructure Junction Lasers”, Patent # 3758875.
- 3.
“Bell Developing a Pocket Laser: Wide Communications Uses Seen for Low-Cost Device” New York Times, July 1, 1970.
- 4.
“Development of Sand Grain-Sized Laser” by “Asahi Shimbun” published on September 1, 1970.
- 5.
Alfarov won the Nobel Prize in 2000 with Herbert Kramer of University of California at Santa Barbara, who built the theory of double heterojunction in 1963. For more detail on the Nobel Prize and continuous wave operation of laser diode in room temperature, refer to Alferov, Z. I. (2000): “Double Heterostructure Lasers: Early Days and Future Perspectives,” IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 6, 832–840, — (2001): “Nobel Lecture: The Double Heterostructure Concept and Its Applications in Physics, Electronics, and Technology,” Reviews of Modern Physics, 73, 767–782.
- 6.
Hayashi, I. (1984): “Heterostructure Lasers,” IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, 31, 1630–1642.
- 7.
Hayashi Izuo, “Double Heterostructure Junction Lasers”, Patent # 3758875.
- 8.
Unless otherwise specified, Hayashi’s description is based on Izuo Hayashi Reminiscence Editors (2007): “Izuo Hayashi Reminiscence (Hayashi Izuo Tsuiso Shu),” Tokyo: Sankeisha.
- 9.
Interview [70].
- 10.
Hayashi, I. (1992): “20 Years of Laser Diode (Handotai Reza 20nen),” Solid State Physics, 27, 456–462.
- 11.
— (1985): “Cw Operation of Laser Diode Won Gan Symposium Award (Handotai Reza no CW Hasshin niyori Gariumu Hiso Shinpojiumusho o Jyusho),” Electronics (Erekutoronikusu), 30, 7–9, — (1989): “The First Room Temperature Operation of Semiconductor Lasers Could Have Happened in Japan?,” Oyo Butsuri, 58, 514–518.
- 12.
Continuous wave operation in room temperature had been achieved by Zhores Alferov’s team at the Ioffe Institute in Soviet Union before Bell Lab did. 1970. In the field of laser diode, researchers in the U.S. and Japan never knew about this research of Alferov’s team because at the time, the Soviet Union never published their research at academic societies of capitalist countries.
- 13.
The first laser oscillation by Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories was an important advancement in laser technology. However, in reality this laser was not being developed for any specific application. Hecht (2010) also pointed out that the laser was “a solution without a problem to be solved.” Taleb (2007) described this laser as follows: “The laser was made for a specific purpose, but became one of the tools in which it was discovered to be applicable for other purposes that no one had ever dreamed of while it was being made (although in reality, there wasn’t any purpose at all). This is a typical example of a ‘solution waiting for a problem’”. As a result, the laser has come to be regarded as a representative example of the advancement of physics, which preceded the specific application beforehand.
However, a caution must be taken when exploring this idea. It was not that its actual application was not being thought of at all. The title of the patent filed by Townes and Schawlow from Bell Lab in July 1958 was “Masers and Maser Communications System” (Patent #: US2929922A). In other words, this suggests that they had the development of communication in mind at the stage of masers before the laser was developed. Gertner (2012) has also pointed this out. Also in 1969, Kenjiro Sakurai, who was the Director of Electron Processing and Head of Laser Laboratory at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, stated that most ideas for laser application at the time were still in a dream-like stage, but stipulated that he foresaw significant implementation in information technology. This indicates that it was not true that the application of the laser was not considered at all. Hecht, J. (2010): “Short History of Laser Development,” Optical Engineering, 49, 99–122, Taleb, N. N. (2007): The Black Swan : The Impact of the Highly Improbable. New York: Random House. Gertner, J. (2012): The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation. New York: Penguin Press, Sakurai, K. (1969): “New Possibility of Information Processing: Slow Growing Laser Applications (Atarashii Jyoho Shori no Kanosei: Reza no Oyo wa Taikibanseigata),” Science Asahi (Kagaku Asahi), 29, 45–49.
- 14.
About the development of optical fibers by Corning Inc, see Hecht, J. (1999): City of Light : The Story of Fiber Optics. New York: Oxford University Press.
- 15.
Suematsu and Kobayashi (2007) briefly summarizes about optical fibers in Chapter 3. Suematsu, Y., and K. Kobayashi (2007): Photonics: Optoelectronics and Its Progress (Fotonikusu: Hikari Electronikusu to Sono Shinten). Tokyo: Ohmusha.
- 16.
Tyndall, J. (1854): “On Some Phenomena Connected with the Motion of Liquids,” Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1, 446–448. Regarding the principle of optical transmission, it is often described that Tyndall invented it first. However, although Tyndall himself has not clarified who the discoverer of the principle of optical transmission is, it does not mention that this principle is something new. Regarding this experiment that Tyndall conducted in London, see Hecht, J. (1999): City of Light: The Story of Fiber Optics. New York: Oxford University Press.
- 17.
The propagation loss of light at that time was about 1000 dB per km. Suematsu, Y., and K. Kobayashi (2007): Photonics: Optoelectronics and Its Progress (Fotonikusu: Hikari Electronikusu to Sono Shinten). Tokyo: Ohmusha., p. 128.
- 18.
Junichi Nishizawa, Ichiemon Sasaki’s Patent Application 1964-64040.
- 19.
Kao, K. C., and G. A. Hockham (1966): “Dielectric-Fibre Surface Waveguides for Optical Frequencies,” Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 113, 1151–1158. Kao has won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009 for achievement in light transmission.
- 20.
Kapron, F. P., D. B. Keck, and R. D. Maurer (1970): “Radiation Losses in Glass Optical Wavegudies,” Applied Physics Letter, 17, 423–425.
- 21.
Murata, H., K. Koizumi, and N. Niizeki (2003): History of Optical Fiber (Hikari Faiba no Rekishi). Tokyo: Kogyo Tsushin., p. 20.
- 22.
Kunio Ito, who led the development of laser diodes at Matsushita Electronics Industry, later described the situation at that time in 1970 as follows: “Although lasers were being developed at the time, its application did not exist. Back then, its practical application for optical discs, etc. was not devised yet, and lasers were merely regarded as something that can only be used for optical communication.” Ito, K. (2009): Basics of Laser Diode (Handotai Reza no Kiso Masuta). Tokyo: Denkishoin., pp. 57–58.
- 23.
Fujimoto, M. (1992): “Passion Is Important (Jyonetsu o Motteiruka Dokade Kimarimasu),” Optronics, 11, 215–221. Interview [155].
- 24.
Mizushima, Y. (2005): Trajectory of Information Revolution (Jyoho Kakumei no Kiseki). Tokyo: Shokabo., p. 99.
- 25.
Nannichi, Y. (1973): “Long Lasting Laser Diode: Great Progress in Optical Information Processing Technology (Handotai Reza wa Nagai Jumyo o Motsu: Hikari Jyoho Shori no Hope Okiku Zenshin),” Electronics (Erekutoronikusu), 18, 1176–1182.
- 26.
Interview [156].
- 27.
Misugi, T. (1992): “What You Could Not See Becomes Visible (Mienaimonoga Mietekuru),” Optronics, 11, 191–196.
- 28.
Nannichi, Y. (1972): “Development of CW Operation at Room Temperature and Its Application (Shitsuon niokeru CW Hassin Seiko no Ayumi to Sono Imisurumono),” Electronics (Erekutoronikusu), 17, 358–364.
- 29.
Hayashi, I. (1992): “20 Years of Laser Diode (Handotai Reza 20nen),” Solid State Physics, 27, 456–462.
- 30.
Yonezu, H. (1977): “Evaluation of Laser Diode by Scanning Electron Microscope (Sosagata Denshikenbikyo niyoru Handotai Reza no Hyoka),” Oyo Butsuri, 46, 196–201, Yonezu, H., I. Sakuma, T. Kamejima, M. Ueno, K. Nishida, Y. Nannichi, and I. Hayashi (1974): “Degradation of AlGaAs Double Heterostructure Lasers,” Applied Physics Letter, 24, 18–19.
- 31.
Regarding the R&D at the time, see Ito, R. (1995): “Semiconductor Lasers,” Japanese Journal of Optics, 24, 486–494.
- 32.
Ishii, M., H. Kan, and W. Susaki (1977): “Defects Formed by Oxygen in the Ambient Gas in GaAs-AlGaAs LPE Layers,” Oyo Butsuri, 46, 85–88.
- 33.
Hayashi, I. (2007): “Research Journey of 50 Years (Hanseiki no Kenkyu Henreki),” Oyo Butsuri, 70, 1043–1045, Petroff, P., and R. L. Hartman (1974): “Rapid Degradation Phenomenon in Hetero Junction GaAlAs-GaAs Lasers,” Journal of Applied Physics, 45, 3899–3903., p. 15.
- 34.
Isamu Sakuma, who remained in the country, remembered the first thing Hayashi said when he came back from the international conference: “Sakuma, we beat Bell Laboratories.” Sakuma, I. (2007): “Memories of Working with Hayashi (Hayashi San to Issyoni Shigoto o Shiteno Omoide),” in Izuo Hayashi Reminiscence (Hayashi Izuo Tsuiso Shu), ed. by Izuo Hayashi Reminiscence Editor. Tokyo: Sankeisha, 61–62.
- 35.
“Service Life of Optical Communication Laser Diode to 11,000 Hours: Mitsubishi Electric Developed the Manufacturing Technology” – “Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun,” July 29, 1975.
- 36.
Gonda, S. (1975): “Laser Diode (Handotai Reza),” Electronics (Erekutoronikusu), 20, 381–386., p. 386.
- 37.
More technically, it was regarded as a problem of latitudinal mode instability. For the detail on latitudinal mode problem, see Suematsu, Y., and K. Kobayashi (2007): Photonics: Optoelectronics and Its Progress (Fotonikusu: Hikari Electronikusu to Sono Shinten). Tokyo: Ohmusha., pp. 174–180.
- 38.
More technically, it was important to control the latitudinal mode in order to create a laser diode that is stable with favorable characteristics, and it was clear that it was necessary to introduce an optical waveguide structure. Kobayashi, K., R. Lang, H. Yonezu, I. Sakuma, and I. Hayashi (1977): “Horizontal Mode Deformation and Anomalous Lasing Properties of Stripe Geometry Injection Lasers–Experiment,” Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, 16, 207–208, Lang, R. (ibid. “Horizontal Mode Deformation and Anomalous Lasing Properties of Stripe Geometry Injection Lasers–Theoretical Model,” 205–206.
- 39.
Further detail on this conference is reported by Nannichi, Y. (1977): “Ieee 5th International Semiconductor Laser Conference,” Journal of the Institute of Television Engineers of Japan, 31, 137–138.
- 40.
Interview [23, 24, 105, 106].
- 41.
This was pointed out by many laser diode researches in an interview. For example, Interviews [15, 22, 42, 61, 105].
- 42.
Hayashi, I. (1977): “Recent Trend of Laser Diode Research (Saikin no Handotai Reza Kenkyu),” Journal of Physics Society of Japan (Nihon Butsuri Gakkaishi), 32, 441–444., p. 443.
- 43.
A buried heterostructure structure is one of the structures that make index guided structures a reality. This structure’s active region is embedded with a material having a low refractive index. This is also known as the BH structure. For the detail on the development of BH structured laser diodes, see Tsukada, T. (1974): “GaAs-Ga1-XAlxas Buried-Heterostructure Injection Lasers,” Journal of Applied Physics, 45, 4899–4906.
- 44.
Ibid.
- 45.
In 1984, the Institute of Electronics and Communication Engineers of Japan presented a performance award to Toshihisa Tsukada and Ryoichi Ito.
- 46.
Namizaki, H. (1975): “Transverse-Junction-Stripe Lasers with a GaAs P-N Homojunction,” IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 11, 427–431, Susaki, W., and M. Ishii (1979): “Single Mode Semiconductor Laser,” Oyo Butsuri, 48, 466–470.
- 47.
In 1981, Kiyoshi Shirahata, Wataru Susaki and Hirofumi Namazaki received a performance award from the Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers.
- 48.
It is said that a total of 45 structures were presented by the Japanese firms at the conference of 1982. Ito, R. (1995): “Semiconductor Lasers,” Japanese Journal of Optics, 24, 486–494., p. 491.
- 49.
Chinone, N. (2005): “Development of Laser Diodes for Telecommunication,” Bulletin of Aichi University of Technology, 3, 133–141., p. 136.
- 50.
‘NEC Commercialized the First Continuous Wave Operated Laser Diode in Our Country; Sale Starts April 1st’ – “Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun,” March 25, 1976.
- 51.
An example of representative research is: Porter, M. E., H. Takeuchi, and M. Sakakibara (2000): Can Japan Compete? Cambridge, Massachusetts: Basic Books/Perseus Publication.
- 52.
Hayashi, I. (1989): “Could CW Operation of Laser Diode at Room Temperature Be Achieved in Japan? (Hantotai Reza no Shitsuon CW Hasshin wa Nihon Demo Dekitaka),” Oyo Butsuri, 58, 514–518., p. 517.
- 53.
Katsuhisa Suzuki, a physicist who was a researcher at Bell Laboratories during the same period as Hayashi, and had a close relationship with Hayashi, recalled that Hayashi had a strong opinion on the Japanese R&D systems and human relationship structures at the time. For detail, see Suzuki, K. (2007): “Friendship with Hayashi Family (Hayashi San Ikka Tono Koryu),” in Izuo Hayashi Reminiscence (Hayashi Izuo Tsuiso Shu), ed. by Izuo Hayashi Reminiscence Editor. Tokyo: Sankeisha, 54–55.
- 54.
Ito, R. (1995): “Semiconductor Lasers,” Japanese Journal of Optics, 24, 486–494., p. 468. I-L refers to the current (I) and light output (L). I-L kink then refers to the sudden saturation of light output. For detail, see Suematsu, Y., and K. Kobayashi (2007): Photonics: Optoelectronics and Its Progress (Fotonikusu: Hikari Electronikusu to Sono Shinten). Tokyo: Ohmusha., pp. 176–177.
- 55.
Ito, K. (2009): Basics of Laser Diode (Handotai Reza no Kiso Masuta). Tokyo: Denkishoin., p. 104.
- 56.
For example, similar points have been made by many researchers across the corporate boundaries who participated in the R&D of laser diodes. Aiki, K. (2007): “Unforgettable 2001 (Kokoroni Nokoru 2001nen),” in Izuo Hayashi Reminiscence (Hayashi Izuo Tsuiso Shu), ed. by Izuo Hayashi Reminiscence Editor. Tokyo: Sankeisha, 77–78, Chinone, N. (2005): “Development of Laser Diodes for Telecommunication,” Bulletin of Aichi University of Technology, 3, 133–141, Yamagoshi, S. (2007): “Memory of Izuo Hayashi (Hayashisan no Omoide),” in Izuo Hayashi Reminiscence (Hayashi Izuo Tsuiso Shu), ed. by Izuo Hayashi Reminiscence Editor. Tokyo: Sankeisha.
- 57.
Ito, R. Ibid.: “Honor Memory of Izuo Hayashi (Hayashi San o Shinobu),” in, 72–73., p. 72.
- 58.
Yamagoshi, S. Ibid.: “Memory of Izuo Hayashi (Hayashisan no Omoide),” in., p. 80.
- 59.
Hayashi, I. (2001): “A Retrospective: 50 Years of Research- Following the Heart,” Oyo Butsuri, 70, 1043–1045., p. 1044. The parentheses represent annotation by the author.
- 60.
Ibid., p. 1044. The parentheses represent annotation by the author.
- 61.
Many researchers have made similar indications in the Interview. Example Interviews include [23, 24, 39, 40, 44, 58, 69].
- 62.
Interview [67].
- 63.
Interview [40, 77].
- 64.
Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun, “World’s Optical Communication Revolution Led by Developments in Japan,” August 19, 1982.
- 65.
Hayashi, I. (1989): “Could CW Operation of Laser Diode at Room Temperature Be Achieved in Japan? (Hantotai Reza no Shitsuon CW Hasshin wa Nihon Demo Dekitaka),” Oyo Butsuri, 58, 514–518.
- 66.
Collins, H. M. (1999): “The Tea Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks,” in The Science Studies Reader, ed. by M. Biagioli. New York: Routledge, 95–109, — (2001): “Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sapphire,” Social Studies of Science, 31, 71–85, Collins, H. M., and R. G. Harrison (1975): “Building a Tea Laser: The Caprices of Communication,” ibid., 5, 441–450.
- 67.
Kuhn, T. S. (1962): The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- 68.
Allen, R. C. (1983): “Collective Invention,” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 4, 1–24, Nuvolari, A. (2004): “Collective Invention During the British Industrial Revolution: The Case of the Cornish Pumping Engine,” Cambridge Journal of Economics, 28, 347–363, von Hippel, E. (1986): “Cooperation between Rivals: Informal Know-How Trading,” Research Policy, 16, 291–302.
- 69.
If a journal/book does not provide a title in English, the title is translated into English and the original title in Japanese is in the bracket.
References
If a journal/book does not provide a title in English, the title is translated into English and the original title in Japanese is in the bracket.
Gertner, J. (2012). The idea factory: Bell labs and the great age of American innovation. New York: Penguin Press.
Hecht, J. (2010). Short history of laser development. Optical Engineering, 49, 99–122.
Taleb, N. N. (2007). The Black Swan: The impact of the highly improbable. New York: Random House.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Shimizu, H. (2019). Continuous Wave Operation at Room Temperature and Long Operating Life: Catch Up of the Japanese Firms. In: General Purpose Technology, Spin-Out, and Innovation. Advances in Japanese Business and Economics, vol 21. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3714-7_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3714-7_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-3713-0
Online ISBN: 978-981-13-3714-7
eBook Packages: Economics and FinanceEconomics and Finance (R0)