Abstract
This chapter deals with the Vietnamese struggle to dismantle the economic system of French colonialism and to build up alternative forms of national economy in the two parts of the country. Besides looking into their technical experience in running an economy, the chapter examines the personal and political background of the leaders of Vietnam. The organization of a war economy by the Việt Minh government, characterized by a dual emphasis on the construction of and resistance against French businesses, is treated in detail. The land reform of 1953–1956 is shown to have been a turning point in the orientation of economic policy towards Socialism in Vietnam. Special attention is paid to the growing withdrawal of French and Chinese entrepreneurs from North Vietnam and to the policies of the Ngô Đình Diệm government to seize their remaining assets in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
Resistance and nation-building are two sides of the same coin.—Hồ Chí Minh
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Notes
- 1.
The political organizations which participated in the formation of the Việt Minh included the New Vietnam Party (Đảng Việt Nam mới), factions of the Vietnam Nationalist Party (Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng) and various National Salvation organizations (Hội Cứu Quốc).
- 2.
Fall, The Viet-Minh Regime, p. 1; Devillers , Histoire du Viet-Nam, p. 97.
- 3.
Under the terms of the Allied agreements signed at the Potsdam Conference (17 July–2 August 1945), the British forces would land in South Vietnam to accept the surrender of the Japanese forces . The task of disarming the Japanese northwards from the 16th parallel was assigned to the Chinese Kuomintang army. On 14 August 1945, 200,000 Chinese troops entered North Vietnam . Nearly a month later, on 13 September 1945, British troops landed in Saigon . Isaacs, No Peace for Asia, pp. 166–168.
- 4.
The non-Việt Minh faction included members of the Indochina branch of the French Socialist Party, a brother-in-law of a French Communist member of parliament, one Roman Catholic, one doctor, one member of the Việt Quốc, one lawyer, one engineer and one man-of-letters. Công báo, 21 December 1945.
- 5.
Bảo Đại reverted to being a common citizen, taking the name Nguyễn Vĩnh Thụy. He served as Supreme Adviser to the Hồ Chí Minh government.
- 6.
Members of the anti-Communist parties included Vice-President Nguyễn Hải Thần (Việt Cách), Deputy Minister of National Economy Nguyễn Tườnng Long (Việt Quốc), Minister of Health Trương Đình Tri (Việt Cách). Bernard B. Fall, The Two Viet-Nams, p. 10; Phạm Hồng Tung, Lịch sử Bộ Nội vụ, pp. 44–45.
- 7.
Thông Tấn Xã Việt Nam, Chính phủ Việt Nam, pp. 36–38.
- 8.
Porter, Vietnam , p. 17.
- 9.
Ginsburgs, ‘Local Government and Administration’, pp. 137–149.
- 10.
Vũ Văn Hoan, ‘Local Organs of State Power’, pp. 65–66; Phạm Hồng Tung, Lịch sử Bộ Nội vụ, p. 77.
- 11.
Bộ Quốc Phòng, Từ điển Bách khoa Quân sự, pp. 567–609; Ginsburgs, ‘Local Government and Administration’, pp. 152–156; Fall, The Two Viet-Nams, p. 135.
- 12.
Đặng Phong and Beresford, Authority Relations, p. 19.
- 13.
The list of 40 members of the Investigatory Committee for Constructing the Nation is provided in Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, pp. 174–175.
- 14.
Công báo, 19 December 1945.
- 15.
Hammer, The Struggle for Indochina, p. 166; Marr , Vietnam , p. 317; Vũ Ngư Chiêu, ‘The Other Side’, p. 306.
- 16.
Khu Hà Linh, Anh Em Nguyễn Tường Tam-Nhất Linh, pp. 70–71.
- 17.
Patti, Why Vietnam , p. 481.
- 18.
Lê Văn Hiến , Nhật ký của Một Bộ trưởng, p. 12.
- 19.
The Vietnam Democratic Party was found in Hanoi in June 1945 by patriotic intellectuals, students, and clerical workers in the colonial administration. Members of the party rapidly sought and gained affiliation with the Việt Minh Front.
- 20.
Bồ Xuân Luật continued to serve in the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation as Deputy Minister. In November 1946, he was appointed Minister of State in the Coalition Government.
- 21.
Dommen, The Indochinese Experience, p. 185.
- 22.
Hoàng Văn Đào , Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng, pp. 278–279; Võ Nguyên Giáp , Unforgettable Days, pp. 286–291.
- 23.
In April 1947, Hồ Chí Minh transferred the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs to Hoàng Minh Giám, the founder of the Vietnamese Socialist Party, who had helped Hồ Chí Minh in the former’s negotiations with the French to set up the 6 March Accord of 1946. Hoàng Minh Giám held the post until April 1954.
- 24.
In 1940, Ngô Tấn Nhơn was sentenced to 5 years in Côn Đảo Prison, inducted for his involvement in the anti-French movement. After his release from prison, he joined the Communist Party and was among the few leaders of the Việt Minh who led the youth movement in its seizure of power in Saigon in the August Revolution of 1945.
- 25.
L.A. Patti, Why Vietnam ? p. 478.
- 26.
Thông Tấn Xã Việt Nam, Chính phủ Việt Nam, p. 57.
- 27.
Fall, ‘Indochina Since Geneva’, p. 14; Lê Mậu Hãn, Trần Bá Đệ, and Nguyễn Văn Thư, Đại cương Lịch sử Việt Nam, p. 161.
- 28.
60 năm Chính phủ Việt Nam, pp. 101–103.
- 29.
Huỳnh Kim Khánh , Vietnamese Communism , p. 16; Fall, The Viet-Minh Regime, p. 6.
- 30.
Nguyễn Mạnh Hà refused to evacuate to Việt Bắc in early 1947. He remained in Hanoi but continued to assist the DRV government. On account of his support of the Việt Minh, in 1953 Nguyễn Mạnh Hà was exiled to France with his French wife.
- 31.
Vũ Ngư Chiêu, ‘The Other Side’, p. 304.
- 32.
Đặng Phong and Beresford, Authority Relations, p. 17.
- 33.
Hồ Chí Minh , Toàn tập, III, pp. 9–12; Hồ Chí Minh , ‘Tuyên ngôn Độc lập’, VII, pp. 434–440.
- 34.
Hiến pháp nước ‘Việt Nam dân chủ cộng hòa năm 1946’, pp. 196–210.
- 35.
Tønnesson, ‘Hồ Chí Minh ’s First Constitution’, p. 11.
- 36.
Hoàng Văn Đào , Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng, pp. 9–10; Nguyễn Văn Khánh , Việt Nam Quốc dân Đảng, pp. 73–75.
- 37.
See an elaboration of Sun Yat-sen ’s Three Principles in Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek, The Three Principles of the People.
- 38.
For the formation and ideological background of the Vietnam Democratic Party and the Vietnam Socialist Party, see Marr, Vietnam , pp. 478–489.
- 39.
Văn kiện Đảng Toàn tập, VII, p. 148.
- 40.
These documents included the Party’s Summary Political Programme, the Appeal, and the Party’s Summary Strategies, which were all drafted by Hồ Chí Minh and were announced at the unity conference of the Vietnamese Communist Party on 3 February 1930. In October 1930, the Party adopted the Political Theses drafted by its first Secretary-General, Trần Phú, and changed its name to the Indochinese Communist Party .
- 41.
Văn kiện Đảng Toàn tập, VI, pp. 518–521.
- 42.
Fforde and Paine, The Limits of National Liberatio, p. 36.
- 43.
Hồ Chí Minh , Toàn tập, IV, p. 268.
- 44.
The contribution of the population was organized through the Tuần lễ vàng (‘Gold Week’) Fund, Nhường cơm sẻ ảo (‘Sharing Rice and Cloths’) Fund and Hũ gạo tiết kiệm (‘A Rice-saving Jar’) Fund. During the Tuần lễ vàng (second week of September 1945), patriotic citizens and well-to-do families were asked to contribute gold to the government to purchase arms from abroad. To raise the Nhường cơm sẻ ảo and Hũ gạo tiết kiệm funds, people were urged to deposit a spoonful of rice in a jar at each meal and to skip one meal every 10 days. The rice saved would be distributed to poor people. Hồ Chí Minh , Toàn tập, IV, pp. 7–9, 39–40.
- 45.
Hồ Chí Minh , Toàn tập, IV, pp. 81–82.
- 46.
Hồ Chí Minh , Toàn tập, IV, pp. 53–54, 75–76, 81–82.
- 47.
Cứu Quốc, 12 December 1945; Hồ Chí Minh , Toàn tập, IV, pp. 13–14;
- 48.
At the Dalat Conference, the French delegation demanded that Vietnam circulate the same monetary units as the other countries in the Indochinese Federation , to be issued by Bank of Indochina. The French authorities continued to control taxation, hence the French commodities would not be considered imports, but domestic products within the French Union. French enterprises in Vietnam would enjoy special privileges in taxation, employment of labour and estates, imports and exports, as well as the consumption of French goods on the Vietnamese market. At the Fontainebleau Conference, the French demanded equal right of the French in Vietnam and Vietnam agreed to respect the property rights of the French and return all seized property, the Indochinese piastre was tied to the francs, and there was to be free trade between the countries in Indochinese Federation . France also demanded compensation for the damages incurred since Japanese coup in March 1945. Marr , Vietnam , pp. 220, 230.
- 49.
In the 6 March Accord, France recognized Vietnam as a free state within the Indochinese Federation with its own government, Parliament and Army. The Indochinese Federation would be a part of the French Union. In return, Vietnam agreed to the landing of 15,000 French troops in North Vietnam where they would take over from the Chinese army. These troops would be gradually withdrawn within 5 years. Cứu quốc, 8 March 1946.
- 50.
Tønnesson, Vietnam 1946, p. 84.
- 51.
Tønnesson, Vietnam 1946, p. 84.
- 52.
Chaffard, Les Deux Guerres, p. 36.
- 53.
Hồ Chí Minh , Toàn tập, IV, 432–434.
- 54.
Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, p. 470.
- 55.
Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, pp. 240, 471.
- 56.
Đặng Phong and Beresford, Authority Relations, p. 20.
- 57.
Văn kiện Đảng Toàn tập, XII, pp. 310–347.
- 58.
Lich sử Đảng Cộng sản, I, p. 445; Vickerman, The Fate of the Peasantry, p. 50; Đoàn Trọng Truyền and Phạm Thành Vinh, L’Édification d’une Économie Nationale Indépendante, p. 38.
- 59.
Qiang Zhai, China and the Vietnam Wars, p. 63.
- 60.
Văn kiện Đảng Toàn tập, XII, pp. 310–347.
- 61.
Văn kiện Đảng Toàn tập, XII, pp. 429–443.
- 62.
Võ Nhân Trí, Croissance Économique, p. 161; Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, p. 389.
- 63.
45 Năm Kinh tế Việt Nam, 1945–1990, p. 195.
- 64.
Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, p. 352.
- 65.
New taxation covered agriculture, trade and industry, commodities, import and export duties, slaughter, registration fee and stamp duty. Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, p. 375; Vickerman, The Fate of the Peasantry, pp. 50–51.
- 66.
Trường Chinh , Cách mạng Dân tộc Dân chủ Nhân dân, II, pp. 307–401; Đoàn Trọng Truyền and Phạm Thành Vinh, L’Édification d’une Économie Nationale Indépendante, p. 34.
- 67.
Moise, Land Reform in China and North Vietnam , pp. 234–236.
- 68.
Trường Chinh , Selected Writings, pp. 294, 335.
- 69.
Văn kiện Đảng Toàn tập, XIV, pp. 499–503.
- 70.
Vickerman, The Fate of the Peasantry, pp. 164–165; Moise, ‘Land Reform and Land Reform Errors’, pp. 88–89.
- 71.
The 1960 Constitution recognized the right to own private property. However, it forbade the use of private property to be used as a tool to sabotage the state economic plan. The state reserved itself the right to buy or requisition all private property if necessary. ‘Hiến Pháp cuả nước Việt Nam dân chủ Cộng hòa năm 1959’, pp. 166–195.
- 72.
For instance, the Japanese used the Banque de L’Indochine to issue banknotes freely to meet their needs. From March to August 1945, the Japanese issued 787 million yen (about 800 million piastres), more than the total amount transferred to them as occupation expenses by the French between late 1940 and February 1945 (720 million piastres), and up to one-third of the 500-piastre bill in circulation. Vũ Ngư Chiêu, ‘The other side of the August Revolution ’, p. 307.
- 73.
Besides these legitimate measures, the protests of Vietnamese employees in foreign companies proved an effective measure should the owners not comply with the law. These actions consisted of reducing production, raising the prices of their products, or dismissing employees without good grounds.
- 74.
Kinh tế Việt Nam, p. 61.
- 75.
The Banque de L’Indochine stopped providing the DRV government with banknotes on 23 October 1945, after French forces had occupied many parts of South Vietnam . By this date, the Banque de L’Indochine had transferred a total of 22 million piastres to the Vietnamese government. Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, pp. 143–144.
- 76.
45 Năm Kinh tế, p. 65; Kinh tế Việt Nam, p. 63.
- 77.
Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, p. 160.
- 78.
Cứu quốc, 27 February 1946.
- 79.
Phillip, Vietnam at War, p. 49.
- 80.
Hardy, ‘The Economics of French Rule’, p. 825; Tertrais, ‘France and the Associated States of Indochina’, p. 74.
- 81.
See a summary of Bourgoin Plan in Hardy, ‘The Economics of French Rule’, pp. 824–428; Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, pp. 462–467.
- 82.
The cost was estimated at 1939 values. The value of the piastres in 1947 was 13.57 times higher than it had been in 1939. Therefore, the real cost for the first 5 years would have been around 25,498 million piastres (according to the 1947 values). Meanwhile, the total budget of Indochina was only 249 million piastres in 1946, 883 million in 1947, 1,250 million in 1948 and 1,788 million in 1949. Kinh tế Việt Nam, p. 422.
- 83.
Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, p. 466.
- 84.
Kinh tế Việt Nam, p. 429.
- 85.
Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, p. 240.
- 86.
Võ Nhân Trí, Croissance Économique, pp. 143–144.
- 87.
Kinh tế Việt Nam, p. 439.
- 88.
The Á-Đông Phosphate Company was established in 1946. It had investment in phosphate mines in Lao Cai. The Indochina Paper Company was the main shareholder in the Dap Cau Paper Mill.
- 89.
Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, p. 476; Kinh tế Việt Nam, pp. 424–425.
- 90.
Hardy, ‘The Economics of French Rule’, pp. 834–836.
- 91.
45 Năm Kinh tế Việt Nam, p. 402. Indochina accounted for 10 and 12% of France exports in 1953 and 1954, whereas the reverse trade was 57% in 1947 and 78% in 1951 and 1953. Laurent Cesari, ‘The Declining Value of Indochina’, p. 177.
- 92.
The contribution of American aid to the total expenditure of the French in Indochina increased correspondingly from 50% in 1950 to almost 80% in 1954. Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, pp. 478–479. Georges Chaffard states that between 1950 and 1954 the American contribution was $2 million, constituting of 78.2% of total military expenditure. Chaffard, Les Deux Guerres du Vietnam , p. 184.
- 93.
Although the exchange rate of the piastre was fixed at the high level of 17 francs, on the black market, the piastre was devalued to 7 or 8.5 francs. The upshot was twofold: the repatriation of currency from Vietnam to France and speculative trafficking in piastres. The situation eventually undermined incentives for investment. Hardy, ‘The Economics of French Rule’, p. 843.
- 94.
Fall, The Viet-Minh Regime, pp. 65–66.
- 95.
Kinh tế Việt Nam, p. 434; Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, I, p. 501.
- 96.
In 1948, the American share in rubber exports from Vietnam was 12.7%, while France retained 62.7%. The import of American consumer goods to Vietnam increased 2.5 times each year during the period 1951–1954. 45 Năm Kinh tế Việt Nam, p. 404.
- 97.
Marsot, The Chinese Community in Vietnam , pp. 168–169.
- 98.
Cứu quốc, 27 February 1946, Lin Hua, Chiang Kai-shek, pp. 139–150; Marsot, The Chinese Community in Vietnam , p. 67.
- 99.
Chen, Vietnam and China , p. 171.
- 100.
Throughout the whole of Vietnam , the number of the Chinese diminished from 731,000 in 1951 to 606,000 in 1953. See: Marsot, The Chinese Community in Vietnam , p. 76; Trần Khánh, The Ethnic Chinese, p. 24.
- 101.
Fall, The Viet-Minh Regime, p. 66.
- 102.
Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 169.
- 103.
Trần Khánh, The Ethnic Chinese, p. 23.
- 104.
According to various sources, the total number of refugees from North Vietnam to the South was between 850,000 to 1 million persons, of whom 600,000 were Roman Catholics, accounting for 65% of the total Roman Catholic population in the North. See a discussion on the statistic number of the refugees in Buttinger, Vietnam , II, pp. 900, 1116–1117.
- 105.
Trần Khánh, The Ethnic Chinese, p. 24; Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, p. 169.
- 106.
Fall, The Two Viet-Nams, pp. 153–154; Murti, Vietnam Divided, p. 83.
- 107.
Cách mạng Ruộng đất ở Việt Nam, p. 70; Fall, The Two Viet-Nams, p. 159. Moise, Land Reform in China and North Vietnam , pp. 190–203; Vickerman, The Fate of the Peasantry, pp. 75, 104.
- 108.
Vickerman, The Fate of the Peasantry, pp. 126–127.
- 109.
Fforde and Paine, The limits of national liberation, pp. 46, 188; Fall, The two Viet-Nams, p. 161; Võ Nhân Trí, Croissance Économique, p. 284.
- 110.
Võ Nhân Trí, Croissance Économique, pp. 220–221.
- 111.
Foreign aid to North Vietnam between 1955 and 1960 was mainly in the form of outright grants. Aid and credits from Socialist countries accounted for a substantial portion of North Vietnamese revenues, about 25.7% in 1958 and about 17.5% in 1959–1960. This increased to 20.3% in 1962. Prybyla, ‘Soviet and Chinese Economic Aid’, p. 90.
- 112.
Fall, The Two Viet-Nams, p. 139. According to Đặng Phong, after 1954, there were only 23 Vietnamese engineers in North Vietnam . Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, II, p. 182.
- 113.
Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, II, pp. 182–184; Đoàn Trọng Truyền and Phạm Thành Vinh, L’Édification d’une Économie Nationale Indépendante au Vietnam , p. 102.
- 114.
Võ Nhân Trí, Croissance Économique, pp. 222–223.
- 115.
Võ Nhân Trí, Croissance Économique, p. 224.
- 116.
Kinh tế Việt Nam 1955–2000, p. 109.
- 117.
Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, II, pp. 204–209.
- 118.
Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, II, pp. 182, 192; Đoàn Trọng Truyền and Phạm Thành Vinh, L’Édification d’une Économie Nationale Indépendante au Vietnam , p. 113; Vickerman, The Fate of the Peasantry, p. 120; Đặng Phong, Lịch sử Kinh tế Việt Nam, II, pp. 382, 397.
- 119.
Fforde and Paine, The Limits of National Liberation, p. 46; Viện sử học, Việt Nam Những sự kiện 1945–1975 (Hanoi : Giáo dục Publishing House, 1975), p. 191.
- 120.
The Geneva Conference was opened on 8 May 1954 one day after the French surrender at Điện Biên Phủ .
- 121.
Bảo Đại acted as Supreme Advisor to the Hồ Chí Minh government until early 1947, when he and his family decided to flee to Hong Kong and remain there. In 1948, in an attempt to form an anti-Việt Minh government the French approached Bảo Đại. The State of Vietnam was erected in July 1949 with Bảo Đại as head of state. It was given the status of ‘an associated state’, a component of the French Union. Although Bảo Đại had no power and he chose to spend most of his time in France , his government received wide international recognition. The United States and Britain recognized the Bảo Đại government on 7 February 1950, seven days after the USSR had recognized the DRV. In late 1951, the French gradually began to transfer the administration to the ‘State of Vietnam ’ but the Bảo Đại government failed to win broad popularity and depended entirely on French support for its day-to-day survival. Lawrence and Logewall, The First Vietnam War, p. 8; Buttinger, Vietnam , pp. 667–734.
- 122.
In fact, before the French adopted the ‘Bảo Đại solution’, they had asked Ngô Đình Diệm to form a Vietnamese government. Diệm refused because he felt the concessions made by France was not far-reaching enough for him to commit himself to their implementation. It was only after France promised to grant complete independence for Vietnam that Diệm decided to accept the position offered by Bảo Đại . Fall, The Two Viet-Nams, pp. 241–244.
- 123.
The ‘Double Seven’ (seventh day of the seventh month) anniversary of Diệm’s rise to power was made a holiday in South Vietnam .
- 124.
The number of French civil servants in Indochina shrank from 27,050 in 1939 to 2,574 by April 1952 and kept on decreasingly rapidly until it dropped to fewer than 1,700 at the time of ceasefire in 1954. Fall, The Two Viet-Nams, p. 219.
- 125.
Statler, ‘After Geneva’, p. 271; Devillers, Histoire du Viet-Nam, p. 381; Buttinger, Vietnam , p. 864.
- 126.
The elections were scheduled to take place in July 1956. However, as many observers did, Diệm realized that participating in the elections would mean handling over control of South Vietnam to Hồ Chí Minh . Fall, The Two Viet-Nams, p. 233.
- 127.
The result of the campaign was that 98.2% voted for a Republic. It was reported that this rate had been made up by the Diệm government. Bouscaren, The Last of the Mandarins, p. 54.
- 128.
Biên niên Sự kiện, pp. 524–525.
- 129.
Members of the Ngô family in the cabinet included Ngô Đình Nhu (political advisor to the President), Ngô Đình Thục (the Roman Catholic archbishop of Huế), Ngô Đình Luyện (ambassador to Britain), Ngô Đình Cẩn (in charge of Central Vietnam ) and Trần Trung Dũng (son-in-law of Diệm’s sister, serving as Deputy-Minister of Defence).
- 130.
Article 98 of the Constitution of the Republic of Vietnam stated that ‘during the first legislative term, the president of the Republic may decree a temporary suspension of virtually all civil rights to meet the legitimate demands of public security and order and of national defence. See Bouscaren, The Last of the Mandarins, p. 54.
- 131.
Donnell, ‘Personalism in Vietnam ’, pp. 46–47; Taylor, A History of the Vietnamese, pp. 556–557.
- 132.
Fall, The Two Viet-Nams, p. 250.
- 133.
Golay, Anspach, Pfanner, and Ayal, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism , p. 401.
- 134.
Fall, The Two Viet-Nams, p. 249.
- 135.
The banknotes withdrawn amounted to 9 billions piastres of which 6 billion were notes issued by the defunct Bank of Indochina and 3 billion were notes printed by the Institue d’Emission. Republic of Vietnam , 7 Years of the Ngô Đình Diệm Administration, p. 309.
- 136.
Musolf, ‘Public Enterprises’, p. 363.
- 137.
Area Handbook for South-Vietnam , p. 307; Musolf, ‘Public Enterprises’, p. 358.
- 138.
Golay, Anspach, Pfanner, and Ayal, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism , p. 402.
- 139.
Musolf, ‘Public enterprises’, p. 364.
- 140.
Tình hình Kinh tế Miền Nam, p. 58.
- 141.
Area Handbook for South-Vietnam , p. 345; Golay, Anspach, Pfanner, and Ayal, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism , p. 409.
- 142.
Tình hình Kinh tế Miền Nam 1955–1975, p. 57.
- 143.
Musolf, ‘Public Enterprises’, p. 364.
- 144.
Fall, The Two Viet-Nams, p. 304; Golay, Anspach, Pfanner, and Ayal, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism , p. 410.
- 145.
Area Handbook for South-Vietnam , p. 322; Stuart, The Land-to-the-Tiller Program, p. 43.
- 146.
Musolf, ‘Public Enterprises and Development’, p. 362.
- 147.
Đặng Phong, Kinh tế Miền Nam Việt Nam, p. 247; Ladejinsky, ‘Agrarian Reform’, p. 170.
- 148.
Tình hình Kinh tế Miền Nam 1955–1975, p. 23; Area Handbook for South-Vietnam , p. 323.
- 149.
Ladejinsky, ‘Agrarian Reform’, p. 170.
- 150.
Area Handbook for South-Vietnam , p. 323.
- 151.
Area Handbook for South-Vietnam , p. 333.
- 152.
Trần Ngọc Liên, ‘The Growth of Agricultural Credit’, p. 187.
- 153.
Golay, Anspach, Pfanner, and Ayal, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism , p. 407.
- 154.
Golay, Anspach, Pfanner, and Ayal, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism , p. 403.
- 155.
7 Years of the Ngô Đình Diệm, pp. 323–324; Area Handbook for South-Vietnam , p. 320.
- 156.
Area Handbook for South-Vietnam , p. 308.
- 157.
Viet-Nam Niên giám Thống kê, p. 46.
- 158.
Golay, Anspach, Pfanner, and Ayal, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism , p. 405.
- 159.
These trades were fishmongers and butchers, retailers of general commodities, coal and firewood merchants; dealers in petroleum products, secondhand goods, scrap metals and cereals; merchants in textiles and silks selling less than 10,000 metres annually; people involved in the transportation of persons or goods by ‘surface vehicle’ or boat; rice millers or processors, and commission agencies. Buttinger, ‘The Ethnic Minorities’, pp. 110, 121.
- 160.
Buttinger, ‘The Ethnic Minorities’, p. 111.
- 161.
Buttinger, ‘The Ethnic Minorities’, p. 119; Golay, Anspach, Pfanner, and Ayal, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism , p. 406.
- 162.
Republic of Vietnam , Viet-Nam Niên giám Thống kê, p. 46.
- 163.
Golay, Anspach, Pfanner, and Ayal, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism , pp. 406–407.
- 164.
Golay, Anspach, Pfanner, and Ayal, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism , pp. 414–416.
- 165.
7 Years of the Ngô Đình Diệm, p. 242.
- 166.
Between 1955 and 1960, gross US economic aid to South Vietnam was on average $220 million per year accounting for about 22% of the South Vietnam GNP. From 1960, there was a substantial reduction in the amount of economic aid, which dropped to $159 million on average per year in 1961–1964. At the same time, military aid rose from $73 million in 1960 to $191 million in 1964. Dacy, Foreign Aid, War, and Economic, pp. 3, 8.
- 167.
Golay, Anspach, Pfanner, and Ayal, Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism , p. 409.
- 168.
Hammer, A Death in November, p. 27.
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Pham, V.T. (2019). Vietnamese Nationalism and Socialism, 1945–1960s. In: Beyond Political Skin. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3711-6_2
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