Abstract
Oral leukoplakia (New Latin leuko, white, + classical Greek plax, flat object) is said to represent the most common premalignant oral mucosal lesion with an estimated global prevalence rate of 2.6%. Historically, practitioners have used many synonyms such as leucoma, smokers’ patch, leukokeratosis and ichthyosis for this lesion. In 1851, Sir James Paget documented a connection between a white keratotic oral lesion and lingual carcinoma; however, the term “leukoplakia” has given rise to considerable misunderstanding since it was first defined more than 140 years ago by the dermatologist Ernst Schwimmer in 1877 [1].
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Petti S. Pooled estimate of world leukoplakia prevalence: a systematic review. Oral Oncol. 2003;39:770–80.
Sciubba JJ. Oral leukoplakia. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 1995;6:147–60.
Warnakulasuriya S, Ariyawardana A. Malignant transformation of oral leukoplakia: a systematic review of observational studies. J Oral Pathol Med. 2016;45:155–66.
Axell T, Holmstrup P, Kramer IRH, Pindborg JJ, Shear M. International seminar on oral leukoplakia and associated lesions related to tobacco habits. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1984;12:145–54.
Pindborg JJ, Reichart PA, Smith CJ, Van der Waal I. Histological typing of cancer and precancer of the oral mucosa. World Health Organization International histological classification of tumours. Berlin: Springer; 1997.
Chi AC, Lambert PR, Pan Y, Li R, Vo DT, Edwards E, et al. Is alveolar ridge keratosis a true leukoplakia? A clinicopathologic comparison of 2,153 lesions. J Am Dent Assoc. 2007;138:641–51.
Natarajan E, Woo SB. Benign alveolar ridge keratosis (oral lichen simplex chronicus): a distinct clinicopathologic entity. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;58:151–7.
van der Waal I. Oral leukoplakia, the ongoing discussion on definition and terminology. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2015;20:e685–92.
van der Waal I. Greenspan lesion is a better term than “hairy leukoplakia”. J Oral Pathol Med. 1996;25:144.
Axell T, Pindborg JJ, Smith CJ, van der Waal I. Oral white lesions with special reference to precancerous and tobacco-related lesions: conclusions of an international symposium held in Uppasala, Sweden, May 18-21, 1994. International collaborative group on oral white lesions. J Oral Pathol Med. 1996;25:49–54.
Mehta FS, Hammer JE. Tobacco-related oral mucosal lesions and conditions in India, A guide for dental students, dentists, and physicians. Bombay: Basic Dental Research Unit, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research; 1993.
Warnakulasuriya S, Dietrich T, Bornstein MM, Casals PE, Preshaw PM, Walter C, et al. Oral health risks of tobacco use and effects of cessation. Int Dent J. 2010;60:7–30.
Gupta PC, Mehta FS, Daftary DK. Incidence rates of oral cancer and natural history of oral precancerous lesions in a 10-year follow-up study of Indian villagers. Community Dental and Oral Epidemiology. 1980;8:287–333.
van der Waal I. Potentially malignant disorders of the oral and oropharyngeal mucosa; terminology, classification and present concepts of management. Oral Oncol. 2009;45:317–23.
Napier SS, Speight PM. Natural history of potentially malignant oral lesions and conditions: an overview of the literature. J Oral Pathol Med. 2008;37:1–10.
Khan Z, Khan S, Christianson L, Rehman S, Ekwunife O, Samkange-Zeeb F. Smokeless tobacco and oral potentially malignant disorders in South Asia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nicotine Tob Res. 2016;5:142.
van der Waal I. Potentially malignant disorders of the oral and oropharyngeal mucosa; present concepts of management. Oral Oncol. 2010;46:423–5.
Greenlee RT, Murray T, Bolden S, Wingo PA. Cancer statistics 2000. CA Cancer J Clin. 2000;50:7–33.
Paricio-Rubio J, Revenga-Arranz J, Ramírez-Gasca T, Boned-Blas P. Leucoqueratosis nicotínica del paladar. Actas Dermosifiliogr. 2002;93:38–41.
Jepsen A, Winther JE. Mycotic infection in oral leukoplakia. Acta Ondontol Scand. 1965;23:239–56.
Renstrup G. Occurrence of candida in oral leukoplakias. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand. 1970;78:421–4.
Palefsky JM, Silverman S, Abdel‐Salaam M, Daniels TE, Greenspan JS. Association between proliferative verrucous leukoplakia and infection with human papillomavirus type 16. J Oral Pathol Med. 1995;24:193–7.
Praetorius F. HPV-associated diseases of oral mucosa. Clin Dermatol. 1997;15:299–413.
Miller CS, Johnstone BM. Human papillomavirus as a risk factor for oral squamous cell carcinoma: a metaanalysis, 1982-1997. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2001;91:622–35.
Bagán JV, Jiménez Y, Murillo J, Poveda R, Díaz JM, Gavaldá C, et al. Epstein-Barr virus in oral proliferative verrucous leukoplakia and squamous cell carcinoma: a preliminary study. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2008;13:E110–3.
Salati NA, Khwaja KJ, Anwer M. Pathogenesis of potentially malignant disorders. Guident. 2012;5:60–2.
van der Waal I, Schepman KP, van der Meij EH, Smeele LE. Oral leukoplakia: a clinicopathological review. Oral Oncol. 1997;33:291–301.
Warnakulasuriya S, Johnson NW, Van der Waal I. Nomenclature and classification of potentially malignant disorders of the oral mucosa. J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36:575–80.
Hansen LS, Olson JA, Silverman S. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia. A long-term study of thirty patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1985;60:285–98.
Bagan JV, Jiménez-Soriano Y, Diaz-Fernandez JM, et al. Malignant transformation of proliferative verrucous leukoplakia to oral squamous cell carcinoma: a series of 55 cases. Oral Oncol. 2011;47:732–5.
Cerero-Lapiedra R, Baladé-Martínez D, Moreno-López LA, Esparza-Gómez G, Bagán JV. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia: a proposal for diagnostic criteria. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2010;15:e839–45.
Carrard VC, Brouns EREA, van der Waal I. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia; a critical appraisal of the diagnostic criteria. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2013;18:e411–3.
Cabay RJ, Morton TH, Epstein JB. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia and its progression to oral carcinoma: a review of the literature. J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36:255–61.
Pindborg JJ, Reibel J, Roed-Petersen B, Mehta FS. Tobacco-induced changes in oral leukoplakic epithelium. Cancer. 1980;45:2330–6.
Daniels TE, Hansen LS, Greenspan JS, et al. Histopathology of smokeless tobacco lesions in professional baseball players. Association with different types of tobacco. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1992;73:720–5.
Lumerman H, Freedman P, Kerpel S. Oral epithelial dysplasia and the development of invasive squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1995;79:321–9.
Abbey LM, Kaugars GE, Gunsolley JC, et al. Intraexaminer and interexaminer reliability in the diagnosis of oral epithelial dysplasia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Endod. 1995;80:188–91.
Mincer HH, Coleman SA, Hopkins KP. Observations on the clinical characteristics of oral lesions showing histologic epithelial dysplasia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1972;33:389–99.
Bánóczy J. Follow up studies in oral leukoplakia. J Maxillofac Surg. 1977;5:69–75.
Cowan CG, Gregg TA, Napier SS, McKenna SM, Kee F. Potentially malignant oral lesions in northern Ireland: a 20-year population-based perspective of malignant transformation. Oral Dis. 2001;7:18–24.
Kujan O, Oliver RJ, Khattab A, Roberts SA, Thakker N, Sloan P. Evaluation of a new binary system of grading oral epithelial dysplasia for prediction of malignant transformation. Oral Oncol. 2006;42:987–93.
Parlatescu I, Gheorghe C, Coculescu E, Tovaru S. Oral leukoplakia–an update. Maedica. 2014;9:88.
van der Waal I, Schepman KP, Van der Meij EH. A modified classification and staging system for oral leukoplakia. Oral Oncol. 2000;36:264–6.
Reibel J. Prognosis of oral pre-malignant lesions: significance of clinical, histopathological, and molecular biological characteristics. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 2003;14:47–62.
Kramer IR, el-Labban N, Lee KW. The clinical features and risk of malignant transformation in sublingual keratosis. Nr Dent J. 1978;144:171–80.
Duncan KO, Geisse JK, Leffel DJ. Epidermal and appendageal tumors. In: Wolff K, Goldsmith LA, Katz SI, Gilchrest BA, Paller AS, Leffell DJ, editors. Fitzpatrick’s dermatology in general medicine. 7th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill; 2007. p. 1024–6.
Feller L, Lemmer J. Oral leukoplakia as it relates to HPV infection: a review. Int J Dent. 2012;2012:1–7.
Nasser W, Flechtenmacher C, Holzinger D, et al. Aberrant expression of p53, p16INK4a and Ki-67 as basic biomarker for malignant progression of oral leukoplakias. J Oral Pathol Med. 2011;40:629–35.
Reddy SG, Reddy SG, Kanala S, et al. The sensitivity and specificity of computerized brush biopsy and scalpel biopsy in diagnosing oral premalignant lesions: a comparative study. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol. 2012;16:349–53.
Lingen MW, Kalmar JR, Karrison T, et al. Critical evaluation of diagnostic aids for the detection of oral cancer. Oral Oncol. 2008;44:10–22.
Awan KH, Morgan PR, Warnakulasuriya S. Utility of chemiluminescence (ViziLite™) in the detection of oral potentially malignant disorders and benign keratoses. J Oral Pathol Med. 2011;40:541–4.
Ganga RS, Gundre D, Bansal S, Shirsat PM, Prasad P, Desai RS. Evaluation of the diagnostic efficacy and spectrum of autofluorescence of benign, dysplastic and malignant lesions of the oral cavity using VELscope. Oral oncology. 2017;75:67–74.
Lodi G, Sardella A, Bez C, Demarosi F, Carrassi A. Interventions for treating oral leukoplakia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(4):CD001829.
Brennan M, Migliorati CA, Lockhart PB, Wray D, Al-Hashimi I, Axéll T, et al. Management of oral epithelial dysplasia: a review. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103(Suppl S19):e1–12.
Ho MW, Risk JM, Woolgar JA, et al. The clinical determinants of malignant transformation in oral epithelial dysplasia. Oral Oncol. 2012;48:969–76.
William WN. Oral premalignant lesions. Curr Opin Oncol. 2012;24:205–10.
Lodi G, Porter S. Management of potentially malignant disorders: evidence and critique. J Oral Pathol Med. 2008;37:63–9.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Peter A. Brennan, Tom Aldridge, Raghav C. Dwivedi, Rehan Kazi
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Desai, R.S., Ganga, R.S., Dwivedi, R.C. (2019). Oral Leukoplakia. In: Brennan, P., Aldridge, T., Dwivedi, R. (eds) Premalignant Conditions of the Oral Cavity. Head and Neck Cancer Clinics. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2931-9_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2931-9_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-2930-2
Online ISBN: 978-981-13-2931-9
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)