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Intellectual Property and Clean Energy pp 115–148Cite as

Climate Change and Human Rights: Intellectual Property Challenges and Opportunities

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Abstract

Mitigating and adapting to the effects of climate change will require innovation and the development of new technologies. Intellectual property laws have a key part to play in the global transfer of climate technologies. However, failures to properly use flexibilities in intellectual property regimes or comply with technology transfer obligations under international climate change agreements calls for a human rights based analysis of climate technology transfer. Climate change is an unprecedented challenge and requires unprecedented strategies. Given the substantial impact of climate change on all of humanity and the ethical imperative to act, a complete rethink of traditional intellectual property approaches is warranted. This chapter proposes a series of intellectual property law policy options, through a human rights framework, aimed at promoting access to technologies to reduce the human suffering caused by climate change.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    IPCC (2013, p. 5).

  2. 2.

    Ibid., p. 161.

  3. 3.

    NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (2016), State of the Climate: Global Climate Report for Annual 2016.

  4. 4.

    IPCC (2014a, p. 58).

  5. 5.

    Ibid., p. 60: ‘Relative to 1850–1900, global surface temperature change for the end of the 21st century (2081–2100) is projected to likely exceed 1.5 °C for RCP4.5, RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 (high confidence). Warming is likely to exceed 2 °C for RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 (high confidence), more likely than not to exceed 2 °C for RCP4.5 (medium confidence), but unlikely to exceed 2 °C for RCP2.6 (medium confidence)’.

  6. 6.

    Ibid.

  7. 7.

    Raftery et al. (2017).

  8. 8.

    IPCC (2013, p. 7).

  9. 9.

    Ibid.: 7, 15; Climate Council of Australia (2015).

  10. 10.

    Adoption of the Paris Agreement, FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1 (UNFCCC 2015).

  11. 11.

    IPCC (2014a).

  12. 12.

    Schleussner et al. (2016).

  13. 13.

    For example, see: United States Environmental Protection Agency (2016).

  14. 14.

    Robinson (2008).

  15. 15.

    IPCC (2014b, pp. 6, 20).

  16. 16.

    Such as the “peoples’ rights” contained within the Organization of African Unity (OAU), African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (“Banjul Charter”), 27 June 1981, CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982), available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3630.html (accessed 1 December 2017).

  17. 17.

    See, for example Sheila Watt-Cloutier, with the support of the Inuit Circumpolar Conference on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic Regions of the United States and Canada, Petition to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting from Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States (2005).

  18. 18.

    De Schutter (2012).

  19. 19.

    United Nations Environmental Program and Sabin Center for Climate Change Law at Columbia University (2017).

  20. 20.

    Ibid., 10–11.

  21. 21.

    Ibid., 31. See, for example: Gbemre v. Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd FHC/B/CS/53/05 regarding human rights protected under the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the Nigerian constitution; Greenpeace Southeast Asia et al. 2015-__ (Commission on Human Rights of the Philippines, 2015) regarding human rights protected under the Philippine Constitution and international human rights instruments; and Leghari v Pakistan (2015) W.P. No 25501/2015 regarding human rights protected under the Pakistan constitution.

  22. 22.

    This minimalist rights-specific strategy for demonstrating anthropogenic climate change violations of human rights was posited in Caney (2010, pp. 69–90: 75). Caney’s approach specifically examined three human rights, the human right to life, the human right to health, and the human right to subsistence.

  23. 23.

    UN Human Rights Committee (HRC), CCPR General Comment No. 6: Article 6 (Right to Life), 30 April 1982, [1].

  24. 24.

    UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 999, p. 171, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3aa0.html (accessed 1 December 2017) (hereafter “ICCPR”).

  25. 25.

    UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child, 20 November 1989, UN Treaty Series 1577, p. 3, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b38f0.html (accessed 1 December 2017) (hereafter “CRC”).

  26. 26.

    European Union, Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 26 October 2012, 2012/C 326/02, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3b70.html (accessed 1 December 2017).

  27. 27.

    Organization of African Unity (OAU), African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (“Banjul Charter”), 27 June 1981, CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982), available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3630.html (accessed 1 December 2017) (hereafter “African Charter”).

  28. 28.

    Organization of American States (OAS), American Convention on Human Rights, “Pact of San Jose”, Costa Rica, 22 November 1969, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36510.html (accessed 1 December 2017).

  29. 29.

    ICCPR, art 6(1).

  30. 30.

    IPCC (2014b, p. 19).

  31. 31.

    Ibid., p. 720.

  32. 32.

    Ibid., p. 718, 1400.

  33. 33.

    United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Report on the Relationship Between Climate Change and Human Rights UN Doc A/HRC/10/61 (15 January 2009): [22–23].

  34. 34.

    Ibid.

  35. 35.

    Yamin (2008), citing Mann et al. (1994).

  36. 36.

    UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III), available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3712c.html (accessed 1 December 2017): art 25(1).

  37. 37.

    International agreements with express protections for the right to health include the Convention on the Rights of the Child art 24, the Convention on the Elimination of all.

  38. 38.

    Kinney and Clark (2004, p. 291).

  39. 39.

    UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 993, p. 3, (hereafter “ICESCR”) available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0.html (accessed 1 December 2017).

  40. 40.

    ICESCR: art 2(1).

  41. 41.

    ICESCR: art 2(2).

  42. 42.

    CRC: art 6.

  43. 43.

    UN General Assembly, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 21 December 1965, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 660, p. 195, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3940.html (accessed 1 December 2017) (hereafter “CERD”), art 5(1).

  44. 44.

    UN General Assembly, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 18 December 1979, UNTS 1249, p. 13, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3970.html. (accessed 1 December 2017) (hereafter “CEDAW”), art 11.

  45. 45.

    UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: resolution adopted by the General Assembly, 24 January 2007, A/RES/61/106, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/45f973632.html (accessed 1 December 2017) (hereafter “CRPD”), art 25.

  46. 46.

    UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12 of the Covenant), 11 August 2000, E/C.12/2000/4, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838d0.html (accessed 1 December 2017), [1].

  47. 47.

    Ibid.: [12].

  48. 48.

    IPCC (2014b, p. 717).

  49. 49.

    Ibid., p. 720.

  50. 50.

    Ibid., pp. 722–725.

  51. 51.

    Ibid., pp. 726–727.

  52. 52.

    Ibid.

  53. 53.

    Ibid., pp. 727–729.

  54. 54.

    Ibid., pp. 727–730.

  55. 55.

    Ibid., pp. 732–733.

  56. 56.

    Ibid., pp. 731–732.

  57. 57.

    Ibid., pp. 730–731.

  58. 58.

    United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 64/292: The human right to water and sanitation, A/RES/64/292, (28 July 2010), available at: http://www.un.org/es/comun/docs/?symbol=A/RES/64/292&lang=E (accessed: 1 December 2017).

  59. 59.

    de Albuquerque (2012).

  60. 60.

    Pani Haq Samiti & Ors v Brihan Mumbai Municipal Corporation & Ors Bombay High Court, PIL-10-2012 (15 December 2014), at [11], available at: http://www.msihyd.org/pdf/pani_haq_samiti_hc_orders_on_water_to_all.pdf (accessed: 1 December 2017).

  61. 61.

    UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (Arts. 11 and 12 of the Covenant), 20 January 2003, E/C.12/2002/11, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838d11.html (accessed 1 December 2017).

  62. 62.

    CRC, art 24.

  63. 63.

    CEDAW, art 14(2)(h).

  64. 64.

    CRPD, art 28(2)(a).

  65. 65.

    IPCC (2014b), above n10: 4.

  66. 66.

    Ibid.: 13; IPCC (2008, p. 47).

  67. 67.

    IPCC (2008, pp. 41, 43).

  68. 68.

    Ibid.: 41–42.

  69. 69.

    ICESCR, art 11(1).

  70. 70.

    ICESCR, art 11(2).

  71. 71.

    UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 12: The Right to Adequate Food (Art. 11 of the Covenant), 12 May 1999, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838c11.html (accessed 1 December 2017).

  72. 72.

    De Schutter.

  73. 73.

    IPCC (2014b: pp. 14, 17–18, 485–533).

  74. 74.

    Hare (2006, p. 179).

  75. 75.

    Ibid.

  76. 76.

    See, for example: South Centre (2009), Third World Network (2008), Littleton (2008), Hutchison (2006) and Abbott (2009).

  77. 77.

    Hutchison (2006, p. 520).

  78. 78.

    UNFCCC Secretariat (2004, p. 9).

  79. 79.

    Hutchison (2006, p, 520), Adam (2009, p. 10).

  80. 80.

    UNFCCC Secretariat (2004, p. 9).

  81. 81.

    Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000, 3).

  82. 82.

    Hutchison (2006, p. 520).

  83. 83.

    Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000).

  84. 84.

    Ibid.: v; Adam (2009, p. 3).

  85. 85.

    IPCC (1990).

  86. 86.

    Weart (2003, p. 146).

  87. 87.

    Ibid.

  88. 88.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, opened for signature 9 May 1992, 1771 UNTS 107 (entered into force 20 July 2005), available at: http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/application/pdf/conveng.pdf (accessed 1 December 2017) (hereafter “UNFCCC”): art 2.

  89. 89.

    Ibid.; IPCC (2000), above n75: 5, 3.

  90. 90.

    UNFCCC: art 4.5.

  91. 91.

    As reflected in the text of Ibid.: preamble.

  92. 92.

    Ibid.: 5.

  93. 93.

    The Marrakesh Accords: Development and Transfer of Technologies, 4/CP.7, FCCC/CP/2001/13/Add.1.

  94. 94.

    Ibid.: Annex, para 12.

  95. 95.

    Ibid.: Annex, para 12.

  96. 96.

    Ibid.: Annex, para 14.

  97. 97.

    Shabalala (2008, 4).

  98. 98.

    UNFCCC, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its thirteenth session, held in Bali from 3 to 5 December 2007, FCCC/CP/2007/6/Add.1 (entered into force 17 December 2007), available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2007/cop13/eng/06a01.pdf (accessed 1 December 2017) (hereafter “Bali Action Plan”): art 1(d)(i).

  99. 99.

    Adam (2009, p. 2); Bali Action Plan: art 1(d).

  100. 100.

    UNFCCC, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its fifteenth session, held in Copenhagen from 7 to 19 December 2009, available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2009/cop15/eng/11a01.pdf (accessed 1 December 2017): art 10.

  101. 101.

    Ibid.: art 11.

  102. 102.

    UNFCCC, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its sixteenth session, held in Cancun from 29 November to 10 December 2010 FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1, available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2010/cop16/eng/07a01.pdf#page=2 (accessed 1 December 2017): art 117.

  103. 103.

    Ibid.: arts 121 and 123.

  104. 104.

    UNFCCC, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its seventeenth session, held in Durban from 28 November to 11 December 2011, FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add.1 (1), available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2011/cop17/eng/09a01.pdf (accessed 1 December 2017).

  105. 105.

    International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (2012).

  106. 106.

    Rimmer (2012).

  107. 107.

    See: UNFCCC, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its nineteenth session, held in Warsaw from 11 to 23 November 2013, FCCC/CP/2013/10/Add.3 (31 January 2014), Available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2013/cop19/eng/10a03.pdf (accessed 1 December 2017) and UNFCCC, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its twentieth session, held in Lima from 1 to 14 December 2014, FCCC/CP/2014/10/Add.3 (2 February 2015), Available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2014/cop20/eng/10a03.pdf (accessed 1 December 2017).

  108. 108.

    CTCN, Countries Pledge Millions for Technology Transfer to Implement Paris Agreement (16 November 2016), available at: https://www.ctc-n.org/news/countries-pledge-millions-technology-transfer-implement-paris-agreement (accessed: 1 December 2017).

  109. 109.

    CTCN, Technical Assistance Dashboard, available at: http://ctc-n.org/dashboard (accessed: 1 December 2017).

  110. 110.

    Khor (2014).

  111. 111.

    Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, opened for signature 1869 UNTS 299 (entered into force 15 April 1994) (hereafter “TRIPS”).

  112. 112.

    Adam (2009, p. 7).

  113. 113.

    TRIPS: art 33.

  114. 114.

    Ibid.: art 3.

  115. 115.

    Ibid.: art 27.1.

  116. 116.

    Ibid.: art 28.

  117. 117.

    Ibid.: art 7.

  118. 118.

    Ibid.

  119. 119.

    Ibid.: art 8.

  120. 120.

    Ibid.: art 27(2).

  121. 121.

    For an analysis of the debate on this point as well as the TRIPS Agreement and climate change, see Rimmer (2011, pp. 83–119).

  122. 122.

    Ibid.: 91.

  123. 123.

    Ibid.: art 66.2.

  124. 124.

    Adam (2009, p. 13); Hutchison (2006, p. 524).

  125. 125.

    Hutchison (2006, p. 524).

  126. 126.

    World Trade Organization, Database of Reports on Implementation of article 66.2 of the TRIPS Agreement. Available at: http://goo.gl/w01cW.

  127. 127.

    Rimmer (2011, p. 117).

  128. 128.

    Maskus (2003, p. 7).

  129. 129.

    Chapman (2009, p. 29).

  130. 130.

    CESCR, Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under articles 16 and 17 of the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: concluding observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: India, 8 August 2008, E/C.12/IND/CO/5, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/48bbdac42.html (accessed 1 December 2017): 6.

  131. 131.

    Helfer and Austin (2011, pp. 419–420).

  132. 132.

    Chapman (2009, p. 1).

  133. 133.

    Compared with, for example, the Right to Development.

  134. 134.

    Chapman (2009).

  135. 135.

    Interestingly, the UN CESCR has released General Comment 17, which covers article 15(1)(c), the right to intellectual property protections arising from a scientific, literary or artistic production. General Comment 17 recognises the possibility for a future General Comment on the REBSPA, and advises that each sub-article of article 15 is interrelated, being “mutually reinforcing and reciprocally limitative”.

  136. 136.

    UNESCO, ‘Venice Statement on the Right to Enjoy the Benefits of Scientific Progress and its Applications’ 2009).

  137. 137.

    Ibid.

  138. 138.

    Ibid.: art 13.

  139. 139.

    Ibid.: art 13(b).

  140. 140.

    Ibid.: 10.

  141. 141.

    Ibid.: art 24.

  142. 142.

    Helfer and Austin (2011, p. 237).

  143. 143.

    Chapman (2002, p. 881).

  144. 144.

    Ibid., p. 881.

  145. 145.

    Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, WT/MIN(01)/DEC/2, 14 November 2001, Doha Declaration (20 November 2001).

  146. 146.

    Ibid.: art 4.

  147. 147.

    Ibid.: art 5(b).

  148. 148.

    Ibid.: art 5(c).

  149. 149.

    Rimmer (2012).

  150. 150.

    Ibid.; Submission from the Philippines to the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention, Fifteenth, two, 3(d), FCCC/AWGLCA/2012/CRP.6 (28 November 2012).

  151. 151.

    Africa: Molewa Delivers South Africa’s Position at Cop18, allAfrica (6 December 2012), available at: http://allafrica.com/stories/201212070382.html.

  152. 152.

    Rimmer (2012).

  153. 153.

    Ibid.

  154. 154.

    Ibid.

  155. 155.

    Ibid.

  156. 156.

    TRIPS: art 31.

  157. 157.

    Ibid.: art 31(b).

  158. 158.

    WTO, Implementation of Paragraph 6 of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, WT/L/540, (30 August 2003).

  159. 159.

    Adam (2009, p. 9).

  160. 160.

    International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (2008, p. 6).

  161. 161.

    Ibid., p. 6.

  162. 162.

    Khor (2012, p. 15).

  163. 163.

    Macmillan (2001, 31–32) as cited in Rimmer (2011, p. 99).

  164. 164.

    Rosenzweig (2009) as cited in Rimmer (2011, p. 100).

  165. 165.

    Maskus (2009, p. 23) as cited in Rimmer (2011, pp. 99–100).

  166. 166.

    For a detailed discussion on the utility of patent pools for cross-pollination in climate change technologies, see: Reichman et al. (2008).

  167. 167.

    UNFCCC Conference of Parties, Lima Call for Climate Action, Decision 1/CP.20 FCCC/CP/2014/10/Add.1, 25.

  168. 168.

    Ibid.

  169. 169.

    New (2011).

  170. 170.

    t’Hoen et al. (2011).

  171. 171.

    Broader than patent pools, patent commons have been suggested to address the technology transfer of ESTs—for example, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development’s “Eco Patent Commons”. Under a patent commons, participants pledge their patented technologies and agree not to assert patent rights against uses of the technology for humanitarian or other public interest grounds. See: Rimmer (2011, p. 318).

  172. 172.

    Grootendorst et al. (2011, p. 183), Hollis and Pogge (2008).

  173. 173.

    Ibid., p. 1.

  174. 174.

    Helfer and Austin (2011), above n121: 237.

  175. 175.

    Robinson (2010), pp. xvii–xx.

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  1. Georgetown Law, Washington, DC, USA

    Alexandra Phelan

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    Matthew Rimmer

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Phelan, A. (2018). Climate Change and Human Rights: Intellectual Property Challenges and Opportunities. In: Rimmer, M. (eds) Intellectual Property and Clean Energy. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2155-9_5

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